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[lEXEIUL EXAMINATION 



THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, 



CH. PHILIPPE DE KERHALLEÏ, 

CAPTAIX IMPEItlAL FRENCH NAVY, OFFICER OF THE LEGION OF HONOR, ETC. 

/ 



NAUTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR AVOIDING HURRICANES 



A MEMOIR ON THE CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD FRENCH EDITION 
BY 

E. H. WYMAN, 

CAPTAIN UNITED S T A T'E S N A V V . 



WASHINGTON. 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1870. 



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TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 



The works of the hite Captain C. II. Philippe De Kerhal- 
let, of the Imperial French Navy, on the winds, currents, 
and navigation of the great oceans, are among the most 
concise, comprehensive, and practical extant. They not 
only afford abundant proof of the research and scientific 
attainments of their author, but also of his thorough know- 
ledge as a practical navigator and seaman, which adds 
much to their value with those of the same profession. 

The General Examination of the Pacific Ocean, by the 
same author, was translated by Commander (now Eear-Ad- 
miral) Charles Henry Davis, United States Navy, in 1859, 
and since published by the Bureau of Navigation. In 
translating this volume of the series I have given a literal 
translation as nearly as the idioms of the two languages 
admit, reducing measures of distances, depths, height of 
barometer, &c., to our own standards. I have added a 
few additional remarks on the winds, &c., of the West 
Indies aiul Gulf of Mexico, translated from the third part 
of the Manuel de la I\avigation dans la Mcr des Antilles et 
dans le Golfe du 2Iexique, a discussion by the late Professor 
A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the United States Coast 
Survey, on the observations on the winds at Fort Morgan, 
Key West, and Galveston, made under his direction during 
the years of 1847, 1840, 1851, and 1852, and observations 
on the winds, &c., of the Straits of Magellan, by Captain 
Richard Mayne, R. N,, commanding Her Britannic Majesty's 
surveying vessel Nassau, 18G8. 

I have also appended to Chapter II on the Currents of 
the Atlantic Ocean a table of the temperatures and the 
specific gravity of its waters from 50° N. to 50° S. latitude, 
taken from the sailing directory for the South Atlantic 
Ocean, by A. G. Findlay, F. R. S. 



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TABLE OF CONTENTS, 



l'ACiK. 

Pkkiace ro Titi': Sf.coxo Edition' ...... ix 

PkKI ACE TO TIIK TitlISD EdITIOX ...... XI 

NOTK Xlll 

CHAPTER I. 

Gkxkrai, Wixds 1-105 

(Division of the Atlantic Ocean into three regions ; sub-division 
of the second and third regions into two zones, the frigid zone 
and the temperate zone; origin of winds ; causes of trade or gen- 
eral winds of the torrid zone; northern and southern pohir winds; 
tropical winds, northern and southern ; winds in the first region 
of the Atlantic Ocean; the torrid zone ; trade-winds, their limits; 
variation of these limits and table showing them ; distiu-bances 
in the trade-winds ; variable winds of the torrid zone ; table 
showing the extent of this zone ; favorable epoch for crossing the 
line ; observations on the variable winds of the torrid zone ; sea- 
sons in this zone ; second region of the Atlantic Ocean ; southern 
frigid and temperate zones ; third region of the Atlantic Ocean ; 
northern frigid and temperate zones ; winds at Spitzbergen and 
Nova Zembla ; winds on the west coast of Africa; land and sea 
breezes ; solar beeezes ; harmattan ; tornadoes ; winds in vicinity 
of the Cape of Good Hope ; to double the Cape of Good Hojie in 
coining from east to west ; winds in Table Bay ; on the coast of 
Africa ; between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Palmas, that 
is, on the coasts of Hotentotia, Cimbebasia, Benguela, Angola, 
Congo, and Loaugo, to Cape Lopez, and in the Gulf of Biafra 
and Benin ; near the islands there. Princes Island, St. Thomas, 
Anno-Bon, and Fernando Po ; winds on the ivory and gold coasts, 
to Cape Palmas ; to the Islands of St. Helena and Ascension ; on 
the coasts of Liberia, Sierra-Leone, the Bissagos, on the coast of 
Senegambia, the Cape Verd Islands, the coast of Senegal, the 
Canaries, Madeira, on the coast of Morocco, Portugal, the Bay of 
Biscay, the entrance of the English Channel, the British Islands, 
on the coasts of Holland, îî^orway, Greenland ; in the Ai'ctic region 
to the north of North America ; in Hudson Bay, Canada, Newfound- 
land; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; indications of the barometer in 
this gulf; winds at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick ; 
on the east coast of North America; on that of South Carolina; 
vicinity of St. Augustine ; at the Bermudas ; in the Gulf of Mex- 
ico; northerly gales; wet and dry season in the Gulf of Mexico; 
.season of hurricanes : winds in the Bahama Channel, on the west 



VI CONTENTS. 

const of Florida, iu Appalacliee Bay, on the coast between this bay 
and the . Mississippi ; winds at Pensacola ; winds at Key West, 
Fort Morgan, Galveston, on the coast between the Mississippi and 
the Bay of Matagorda ; on the coast from Matagorda to Tampico 
and Vera Cruz ; winds at Vera Cruz ; on the coast between that 
port and Point Piedras, from Point Piedras to Cape Catoche ; winds 
in the West Indies ; hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean ; calms and 
squalls near the West India Islijuds ; races ; Avinds in the Island 
of Cuba ; in the Bahama Islands ; winds in the Island of Jamaica, 
Santo Domingo, Porto Kico ; in the Windward Islands ; on the 
east coast of Yucatan, Honduras, the Musquitos ; on the coast 
comprised between St. Juan de Nicaragua and Cape de la Vela ; 
at Porto Bello, Carthagena ; on the coasts of Carracas and Camana ; 
on the coast of Guiana ; Demerara, French Guiana ; on the north 
coast of Brazil ; at Para, Maranham; on the east coast of Brazil ; 
in the Bay of All Saints ; at Eio Janeiro ; Paraguay ; in the La 
Plata ; Pamperos ; winds on the east coast of Patagonia ; at Tierra 
del Fuego ; at Cape Horn ; at the Falkland Islands ; squalls in 
general ; barometer, atmospheric tides ; winds, Straits of Magel- 
lan.) 

CHAP TEE II. 

Page. 
General Currents 106-135 

(Currents of the tides ; general currents ; drift currents ; causes 
of general currents ; equatorial current ; polar currents; tropical 
currents ; equatorial current, extent, velocity, temperature, north- 
west branch of equatorial current, disturbances observed in this 
current; current to the east, between the Current of Guiana 
and the northwest branch of the equatorial current ; Current of 
Guiana; Current of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico; cur- 
rents in the Windward Islands; Gulf Stream or Florida Current ; 
northeast branch of the Gulf Stream ; current of the Icy Sea ; 
Arctic Current; Current of Hudson Bay; Current of the Bay of 
Biscay; Eennel Current; of the coast of Portugal ; of the Strait of 
Gibraltar; polar current of Africa and Current of North Guinea; 
comparative table of mean velocity of currents in the northern 
hemisphere ; Current of Brazil ; alternate currents near the coast 
of Brazil; Current of Cape Horn, the traverse current of the At- 
lantic ; Current of the Cape of Good Hope ; counter-current of the 
Cape of Good Hope ; counter south-atlantic polar current; Cur- 
rent of South Guinea ; comparative table of mean velocity of the 
currents in the southern hemisj)here. ) 

CHAPTER III. 

Navigation in the Atlantic Ocean 136-171 

(Routes to the ports of Archangel and Onega ; tides on the coast 
of Lapland and in the White Sea ; route from Europe to North 
America, at the commencement and end of the year ; route from 
Europe to Newfoundland or to the Great Bank; route for the Is- 



CONTENTS. VII 

land of St. ricnv and the (iulf of St. Lawrence ; ennents on tho 
Great Bank and in its vicinity ; cnirents near tlic coast ofNt-wfonnd- 
land ; routes from the United States and Enropc to the licrnuidas ; 
making tlie land of the Bermudas; routes from Europe to the 
United States; routes from tho United States to Europe; routes 
from Euroi)e to the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico ; route from 
the United States or from the Bermudas to the West Indies and 
Gulf of Mexico; routes from Europe to Guiana; routes from the 
West Indies to Europe; route from Europe to the ports of South 
America; where to cross the Equator; route from South America 
to Europe ; routes from Europe to the ports of Northern Africa ; 
from Europe to the Canaries ; from the Canaries to any point north 
of Cape Palmas ; for the north coast of Guinea ; for the Islands of 
the Gulf of Biafra ; for the Gaboon ; route from east to west in the 
Gulf of Guinea ; after leaving the Gulf of Guinea to returu to Eu- 
rope, to Sierra-Leone, to Gambia, Goree, St. Louis, the United 
States; favorable season for leaving the Gulf of Guinea; routes 
from Europe to ports of Africa south of the Equator ; great route ; 
little route ; route from Europe to Ascension, to the east, to the . 
west ; routes from Europe to St. Helena, to the east, to the west ; 
routes from Ascension and St. Helena, to the south coast of Africa; 
routes from Africa to the Islands of St. Helena and Ascension ; 
routes from north coast of Africa to Europe ; route from Cape of 
Good Hope to Europe ; same along the coast of Africa ; routes 
from North America to the north coast of Africa; routes from 
North America to the west coast of South Africa, or the east coast 
of South America; route from the Cape of Good Hope to North 
America. ) 



APPENDICES. 

Page. 
Appendix No. I 173-182 

(Hurricanes; nautical directions to avoid hurricanes.) 

Appendix No. II 18<5 

(Memoir on the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean ; sub-marine cur- 
rents; navigation of the brig of war Eagle, from the coast of 
Guinea to the West Indies ; observations on the Current of North- 
ern Guinea ; on the equatorial current ; on the currents in the 
north of the Atlantic, between Greenland and the Shetlands, near 
Iceland, and the Islands of Faroe ; at Spitzbergen ; observations 
on the currents of Davis's Strait, the Gulf Stream ; on the circular 
movement of great currents.) 



Alphabetical Index of the Names of Places . . 203-217 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The General Examination of the Atlantic Ocean, publislicd 
in 1851, was written principally as an introdnction to the 
Manuel de la N^avigation à la Cote Occidentale d'' Afrique. 

In this first worlv, therefore, our attention was specially 
given to the most important facts in relation to such winds 
and currents as would be more particularly useful for the 
navigation of the coast of Africa, and for the routes from 
Europe to this continent. 

Since then we have continued the study of tlie great seas 
of the globe, and have successively published the General 
Examination of the Indian and Pacijic Oceans, accompanied 
by three charts showing the general winds and currents, 
and the rontes'for traversing these seas. 

The dépôt général of the marine having decided that the 
three oceans should be issued uniformly, the Atlantic as well 
as the two others will be furnished with three charts and a 
more complete memoir than that first published. 

In this edition, while preserving the most important parts 
of our first work, we treat of those which were then ex- 
cluded. 

For this purpose we have studied the winds at large in 
the different regions of the Atlantic Ocean, and then mak- 
ing the tour of the basin of this sea, we have indicated the 
winds peculiar to each locality which are either predomi- 
nant or periodical. 

We have besides given in detail the usual routes for trav- 
ersing this ocean in every direction; In borrowing infor- 
mation referring to this subject from various works, we have 
left out all local detail. It would be necessary, then, to 
consult these works when navigating in certain localities, 
or when coasting. Among the numerous works we have 
consulted are the following: Blmifs Coast Pilot; Sailing 
Directions for the Elver St. Lawrence, by Bajfield ; Berro- 
tero de las Antillas ; Le Filoie du Brésil, by Admiral Bar- 
ron Itoussin ; Directions on Patagonia, by King ; Bescrip- 



X PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

tion of the Falkland Islands^ by Captain Sullivan ; Les In- 
structions sur la Guiane Française, by M. Lartigue; The 
India Directory, Horsburgh ; The iSailing Directory of the At- 
lantic Ocean, Purdy; The Memoir of Purdy to accompany 
the Chart of the Atlantic Ocean ; ^Vind Chart of the Atlantic, 
Manry ; The Atlas of Berglicms and of Johnston ; EenneVs 
Atlas of Currents ; History of the British Colonies, by Mont- 
gomery Martin ; The Winds, Currents, and Tides, by Eomme ; 
Voyages of Parry ; Voyages of CooTc, Sir James Ross, and of 
Dumont D^Ur ville, to the /South Pole; and a great number of 
voyages, both ancient and modern, which we have men- 
tioned in the preface of Les Considérations sur V Océan Pa- 
cifique. 

For the length of a great number of voyages in the At- 
lantic Ocean, we have made use of a manuscript which M. 
Daussy, hydrographie engiueer-in-chief of the depot of the 
marine, had kindly placed at our disposal. To him we would 
extend our warmest thanks. It is from this document that 
we have given, when possible,- the length of the greater part 
of the voyages. 

In reading the manuscript of M. Daussy, we were struck 
with the diiference of time employed by shii)s to make the 
same voyage, thus only to cite a single example : Horsburgh, 
leaving England, made the Cape of Good Hope in sixty- 
seven days, while the greater number of other navigators 
were from ninety to one hundred and ten days in making 
the same distance. Many causes may operate to make this 
différence in the same voyage ; nevertheless, in the rapid 
trip of the celebrated English captain, it is proper, perhaps, 
to attribute something to the science and knowledge of the 
great general phenomena of the ocean, which he so skill- 
fully used. 

From this, we are in hopes that the examination of the 
three great seas of thé globe, forming, in a measure, a gen- 
eral treatise of navigation, may not be without utility to 
seamen. 

CH. PHILIPPE HE KERHALLET. 

Paris, February 1, 1852. 



PREFACE ÏO THE THIRD EDITION. 



lu this new edition of the General Examination of the 
Atlantic Ocean we bave made some correctious and import- 
ant additions. The quick disposal of the first two has con- 
vinced us that this work is not without value to seamen, 
and we feel flattered at the favorable reception it has met. 
^Ve have labored to complete it by inserting new documents 
which we have been enabled to collect since the issue of the 
second edition. We have besides introduced general obser- 
vations on hurricanes and the laws which govern these for- 
midable atmospheric disturbances. In Appendix No. 1, 
placed at the end of the volume, will be found nautical di- 
rections which should be followed in these tempests, as also 
the maneuvers to be made, if such is possible, according to 
the position which the vessel may occupy in the storm. 
We owe this important work to the kindness of the learned 
hydrographie engineer M. Keller, and we are happy to ac- 
knowledge our obligation. Xot only has he kindly author- 
ized us to make extracts from his memoir published in 1847, 
but he has furnished us a very important extract from an- 
other memoir on the same subject, as yet uui^ublished. The 
nautical directions given by M. Keller and deduced from a 
long and profound study of these phenomena, are simple 
and very clearly described. We doubt not their being of 
the greatest service to seamen. 

A second appendix is joined to this work. It is a very 
interestiug discussion relating to the currents of the At- 
lantic Ocean, by M. Irminger, captain in the Danish navy, 
and translated by M. le Barou Belong, consul general of 
Denmark. In this memoir tbe author, an officer as distin- 
guished as conscientious, gives the observations he has 
made upon the submarine currents, using the instrument 
invented by M. Aimé for this kind of research. Although 
to the present time the study of submarine currents does not 
appear to have afforded any result practically beneficial to 
navigation, the physical sciences will certainly profit by it, 



XII PREFACE TO THE THIED EDITION. 

and for tlie wbale fishery it is of the greatest importance. 
Captain Irminger has added to these observations made on 
the currents of the coasts of Africa and Guinea, on the 
equatorial current, &c., and he has paid particular atten- 
tion to noting, on the chart which accompanies his work, the 
temperatures observed in the Icy Sea, which is a subject on 
which little is as yet known. These observations are very 
useful for a knowledge of the currents of this sea and for 
those of that portion of the ocean comprised between the 
coast of Greenland and the Shetlands, where Iceland and 
the Isles of Faroe are situated. Observations of this kind 
are of great interest to science and to navigation. It gives 
us the greatest satisfaction to be able to place before French 
seamen this work of Captain Irminger, We pray M. le 
Baron Belong, who in translating this work has been the 
means of this gratification, to accept our most cordial 
thanks. 

We hope that these observations, collected with much care^ 
may induce seamen navigating in these localities to make 
additional ones. At any rate those of Captain Irminger 
will facilitate the navigation of this part of the Atlantic 
Ocean, as yet little studied in this particular. 

In this work we have indicated but briefly the winds, 
currents, and navigation in the West Indies and the Gulf 
of Mexico. To have treated them in detail would have 
obliged us to have gone beyond the bounds laid down for 
this work. We will refer to the Manuel de la Navigation 
(Jans la Mer des Antilles et dans le Golfe du Mexique, chapters 
8, 15, and 18, those who may wish to study more completely 
these two seas. 

CH. PHILIPPE DE KERHALLET. 

Paris, Becemher 1, 1853. 



NOTE, 



We give to tlie winds the name of tlie point from whicli 
they bh)w ; to the currents, that of the i^oints of the com- 
pass toward m hich they run. 

The direction of the winds, that of the currents, the 
courses, the trend of the hind, and tlie bearings, are cor- 
rected for the variation of the magnetic needle, except 
Avhen otherwise stated. 



GENERAL EXAMINATION 

OK 

TJIE ATJ.ANTIC OCEAN. 



CHAPTEK I. 

GENERAL WINDS. 

The biusiii of the Atlautie, unequally iuclosed between tlie 
west coasts of Europe and Africa and the east coast of 
America, i)reseuts a deep valley, which, to the north and 
south, appears to be only limited by the poles of the globe; 
the ice barriers alone having" arrested those navigators who 
have attempted to explore its limits. 

In order to study the general winds of this ocean we will 
divide it into three regions : The first, comprised between 
the parallels of 30° X. and 30° S. latitude ; the second, be- 
tween the parallel of 30° S. latitude and the South Pole ; 
and the third, between the parallel of 30° X. latitude and 
the North Pole.- 

AYe will divide the two last regions into two zones each — 
the temperate zone, from the parallel of 30° of latitude to 
60°; and the frigid zone, from 00° to each pole. 

We will at first study the winds of each of these regions 
clear of the coast ; then„commencing at one of the extremi- 
ties of the basin, we will indicate in turn what are the winds 
ordinarily encountered near the coasts. 

The currents of the air owe their origin to every action ^j^ji^' ° ^ ° ° ^ 
which tends to disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere. 
Science has attempted to determine the causes of winds and 
the general laws which they follow. Philosophers attribute 
them to the heat of the sun, so different and so variable at 
the surface of the earth, combined with the diurnal move- 
ment of the earth itself. 

The difference between the temperature of the polar re- 
gions and of those bordering- on the Equator being consid- 
erable, there should result, they say, from this inequality, a 



15 WINDS — THEIR ORIGIN. 

constant exchange of air between these two regions ; thus^ 
the air of the polar regions, cold and dense, goes to replace 
the heated and expanded air of the Eqnator, which, rising 
and forming an npper current, should flow îv". and S. to es- 
tablish the equilibrium. 

If the earth was in a state of repose, the winds near its 
surface would be uniformly directed from N. and S., accord- 
ing to the hemisphere in which they blow ; but, the globe 
turning from west to east on its axis, the speed of rotation 
of its different points being so much greater as these points 
approach the Equator, it results that the cold currents of 
air passing from high latitudes toward this great circle, and 
arriving progressively at the regions where the rotatory 
motion is more and more considerable, and not being able 
to partake of this motion from their want of cohesion with 
the earth, they take an opposite or contrary direction to the 
movement of rotation of the globe, viz., from E. to "V\'. 

Thus, from the combination of the movement of the rota- 
tion of the globe, and the difference of temperatures of its 
surface, the currents of air coming from the N. and from 
the S. in each hemisphere are modified in their direction 
and bent toward the î^. E. and S. E., forming the winds 
called general winds, or the trade- winds of the torrid zone. 
Passing by the different theories which have been orig- 
inated on this subject, and the numerous objections raised 
to each of them, we will coniine ourselves to giving the 
IDriucipal facts Avhich have been recognized regarding the 
winds of the Atlantic — the knowledge most useful to navi- 
gation, 
p oiar winds, The two curreuts of air directed from the North and South 

southern!^ '^"^ Poles toward the Equator, which hiWQ been indicated above, 
are named the polar winds — north^n and southern, accord- 
ing to the hemisphere in which they exist. 
Tropical winds. In oppositiou, the tropical winds are called northern and 

southern.^ "^ '^^' southeru as directed from the Equator toward the poles. 

These last appear to be counter-currents of the polar winds. 

First region of lu the northern hemisphere the polar winds blow from 

Ocean or ^torrid N. E. ; in the southem hemisphere, from the S. E. 5 and 
take a direction more inclining to E. as they approach the 
Equator. Between the tropics these winds are commonly 
called the trade-icmds of each hemisj^here 5 they are named, 
besides, the general winds of the torrid zone. These winds 
render the voyages in the Atlantic from the Old to the Xew 
World both easy and expeditious. 



WINDS — T1{ADE-WTN1)S. 



Tlie tiade-Aviuds ai)i)eiu- to he the only piiinitivo winds. Tnidc-wituis. 
Where tliey blow steadily the weather is constantly fine and 
the sky gonerally dear. If they cease for a moment the sky 
becomes overcast, and in certain localities storms and rains 
are experienced. They are stronger and more durable as 
the localities are nearer or further removed from the Equa- 
tor. In the localities ^\iiere the trade-w^iuds do not blow, 
squalls and storms are frequent; and where, from any cause, 
they are interrupted only, bad weather is experienced, and 
their return is accompanied by a violent reaction. 

The trade-winds in the northern and southern zones have 
resemblances and différences Avhich will be pointed out 
hereafter. 

The ]iolar limit of the trade-winds, T)oth N, E. and S. E., 
stretches generally to the parallels of 30° N. and 30° S. of 
the Equator, but this limit varies much in different parts 
of the ocean, being subject to the temperature; thus it ex- 
tends about .'P further north or souch, as the sun's declina- 
tion is north or south. 

The equatorial limit of the N. E. and S. E. trade- winds is 
equally variable, from the same cause. That of the N. E. 
trades, as a mean, is about the parallel of 8° N. latitude^ 
that of the S. E. about 2° to 3° îs". latitude. 

From a great number of observations the following table 
was formed; this, however can only be considered as an 
approximation : 



Limit of tlif 
. trade-winds. 



Limits of the trade-ivinds. 



Winter 



SpriiijS 



A 111 mini 



Polar limits 
oftheN.E. 
and S. E. 
trades. 



Lat. v. and S. 

240 45/ 



30° 4.5' 



28° 20' 



Equatorial 
limits of 
thciS'. E. 
tiade. 



Lat X. 

50 45' 



Equatoiial 
limits of 
theS.E. 
trade. | 



Lat. K. 

2° ;iO' 



Polar li7)iits of tlie îs\ E. 
trades according to tlie 

llKIKtllS. 



January 

February . . . 

March •. 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

Sejitember . . 

October 

November .. 
December... 



'>«*. A". 
23° 24' 
28° 30' 
27° 19' 
28° 18' 
28° 31' 
31° 25' 
29° 3G' 
31° 11' 
32° 04' 
2.5° 38' 
27° 14' 
22° 15' 



4 WINDS — TRADE-WINDg. 

lu the Atlantic Ocean the N. E. trade-winds blow with 
less force over the space comi^rised between Cape Verd and 
the coast of Guiana than the S. E. trades do in the neigh- 
borhood of the Equator. This is caused, without doubt, 
by the configuration of the coasts which confine this portion 
of the ocean. Xear the Windward Islands the trade-winds 
blow generally fresh from E. to N. E. 

It is, besides, remarked that in the zone comprised be- 
tween the Equator and the parallels of 28° latitude IST. and 
S., when the sun is near the great circle, these winds blow 
from nearly N. E. in the northern, and from S. E. in the 
southern hemisphere. 

But if the sun is in the northern hemisphere, and at its 
greatest distance from the Equator, the winds in this hemi- 
sphere have a tendency to blow more directly from the E., 
and heavier squalls are experienced than at any other time. 

In the southern hemisphere the trades then blow more 
directly from S. 

If, on the contrary, the sun is in the southern hemisphere, 
the same takes place inversely ; then in this hemisphere the 
winds blow more from the E., while in the northern hemi- 
sphere they haul more to the N., and arrive at their limit 
nearest approaching the Equator. 

Squalls, rains, and storms may be expected in the zone 
where the sun is vertical. 

During the winter the trade- winds of the K. are at times 
encountered before reaching the latitude of Madeira; 
this is, however, an exception to the general rule mentioned 
in speaking of the polar limit of these winds. 

At other times the variable winds of the temi^erate zone 
extend as far as the parallel of 20° î>r. without appearing to 
be subject to any general law, and this may take j^lace in 
any season. 

In the southern hemisphere similar facts are presented ; 
thus, during the clear season the limits of the S. E. trades" 
are foaud in the neighborhood of the parallel of the Cape of 
Good Hope, while from Juue to August the westerly winds 
j)revail between this parallel and the Tropic of Capricorn. 

It is fiu^ther to be remarked that near the polar limit of 
the trade- winds calms and light variable breezes, vrith light 
squalls and rain, are often encountered, even through the 
extent of the belt which separates the tropics from the 
parallels of 29° of latitude N. and S. 



WIIS'DS — TRAI)E-\V 1>J1)S. a 

Tims it is s.h'U that tlu' [k)1;!1' limits of the trjulc-uiiids 
art' very \ ariabU'. In tlic siintheru hemisplicre this limit, 
thoui;h sometimes near to the trojiie, is oi'tener iti the vi- 
cinity of tlie parallel of the Cape of Good Hope. 

In this zone of the S, E. trades, it has been observed that 
in )>laees sitnated to the sonthward of IG'^ of S. latitude, 
the winds have a <ircater tendency to Aary toward the 
X. E. than toward the S. E., and blow ratlun- from the 
E. to the X. E. than from the E. to the S. E. This ehaiige 
is quite frequent. During- a year of residence at St. Helena, 
Halley found that the S. E. trades blew always from or 
nearly from S. E., and that they varied oftener from S. E. 
to E. than from S. E. to S. With the Avinds at E. the 
weather was overcast, and the return of clear weather de- 
pended on the return of the wind to S. E.* 

Finally, to terminate these remarks, we will observe that 
on apin'oaching the coast of America, the polar limits of the 
two zones of trade-wands are found to extend more to the ; 
nortli in the nortliern hemisphere, and more to the south in 
the southern hemisphere than u}>on the coast of Africa ,f by 
."»o or 40. 

It happens at times in the re.o'ions of the trade-winds that Disturbances in 

tlie trade-winds. 

their course is momentarily interrupted by winds blowing 
from an opposite direction. These winds are never of long 
duration, and are only due to accidental causes. D'Après | 
met with winds from the X. W., between 24° and 22° S. 
latitude, from the 12th to the IStli of March, 1735. We 
ourselves have also had the wiîul from ÎST. N. W. in the lati- 
tude of 18^ X. ami nine hundred miles to the eastward of 
Martinique, while making the passage from lîrest to that 
island. These winds lasted but two days and were feeble. 

Near the islands situated in the zone of the trade-winds, 
these winds are also disturbed ; thus, in the Cape Verd 
Islands, the X. E. trades are often lost ; and in the belt 
comprised between the parallel of 10° and the Equator, and 
the Vvestern meridian of this group and Cape Yerd, it is 
remarked that there is in reality no definite prevailing- 
wind, but gusts and cat's-paws, or winds of short duration. 

In the vicinity of the Island of Trinidad, situated near the 
coast of Brazil, the frequent variation of the trades from 
S. E. to S. is equally marked. Variable winds are also 

* Ronime. ] B\\mVs Coa.'^t Pilot. t Xei)t)ine Oriental. 



•G ^VINDS — VARIABLE 0¥ THE TORRID ZONE. 

found blowing ofteuer from the K. tliau from the S.* and 
heavy squalls from the W. are also met with. 

In the two last cases which we have cited, the vicinity of 
the coasts of Africa and America are without doubt the 
principal cause of these disturbances. 
Variable winds The trade- wiuds are separated in their equatorial limits 

of tlie torrid zone. . , . , 

by a zone or belt of calms and variable winds ; a zone very 
variable in its extent from N. to S., the mean parallel of 
which is about 8° of N. latitude. In this zone calms, 
squalls, and light breezes, blowing from every point of the 
compass, but i)rincipally from S. W., are mostly encountered. 

This zone extends more to the north of the Equator du- 
ring the summer, and is then found as far as the parallel of 
14° and even 15° of N. latitude.f On the other hand, in the 
winter it is narrower, v/hen the sun approaches the Tropic of 
Oapricorn ; it then, at times, extends only to the i^arallel of 
3° 'N., but always remains to the north of the Equator. 

We have frequently been able to verify the correctness of 
the data in the following table, of the extent of the belt of 
variable winds of the torrid zone, prepared byHorsburgh, 
from observations made from 1791 to 1807, and taken from the 
log-books of two hundred and fifty vessels, which had tra- 
versed the zone of the variable winds of the Equator, be- 
tween the longitudes of 20° and 30° W. 

It will be seen from this table that the zone of vaiiable 
winds is the broadest from June to December, and the nar- 
rowest from December to June. 
seas'in foJ^CTo^sl^- ^hus, ill making passages from one hemisphere to the 
ing tiie line. othcr and crossing the line, in coming from the north or 
south, the most favorable months to traverse the zone of 
variable winds are those from December to June. According 
to the season, when the line is crossed, the passage may be 
longer or shorter by several weeks, depending on the 
^greater or less delay from the calms, squalls, and variable 
breezes of the Equator, with which the navigator may ex- 
pect to be annoyed, particularly during the months of June, 
July, August, and September. |" 

* Capt. Leslie, Lieut. Hamilton — (Partly, 6tli editiou.) 
t Cook, Wallis, LaPérouse, and many other navigators. Valliant lost 
the N. E. trades in 0° 30' N., (voyage of the Bonite;) Dumont d'Urville 
in 13° 50', (voyage of the Astrolabe;) Dnpetit-Thonars in 5-, (voyage 
■of the Venus.) 

t See Maury's Charts, 1851. 



W1>'DS — VAWIAIJLE OF THE TOUIUD ZONE 



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8 WINDS — VARIABLE OF THE TORRID ZONE. 

Tlie following remarks upon the zone comprised between 
the parallels of 4° to 10° N., and the meridians of 18° to 25° 
W., that is, between the JST, E. and S. E. trade-winds, may 
be useful to mariners.* 

The winds in the zone which separates the trade- winds 
generally incline to the southward,: and few vessels pass from 
one trade to the other without meeting with very unpleasant 
weather, in the form of calms, light baffling winds, squalls 
and rain, particularly when the sun is much to the north- 
ward. 

In June, July, and August heavy squalls seem to prevail 
from S. W., with a great deal of rain, and the wind often 
blows hard from this quarter for several hours together and 
then falls calm, leaving a heavy and confnsed short sea, 
which strains a vessel more than a fresh gale. 

When the sun is far to the southward the weather is com- 
paratively fine, with light southerly and S. E. winds, inter- 
rui)ted, however, occasionally by squalls and rain ; the calms 
then are of shorter duration, owing probably to the limited 
breadth between the trade- winds at this season. 

In this part of the ocean when nmch lightning is seen in 
a heavy dense cloud, in any quarter of the compass, the 
wind may be expected to come out suddenly from that 
quarter, especially if there is any rain, even though the 
wind may be blowing at the same time with moderate force 
from an opposite quarter. Whenever there is much light- 
ning, and the wind is unsteady and baffling, prepare for a 
change. A heavy, dense cloud, having a squally appear- 
ance, may rise and pass slowly over the vessel directly to 
leeward, with perhaps little or no increase of wind, and 
when the danger might be sux)posed over, the vessel is taken 
aback by a smart squally this in^obably arises from the 
clond, which has just gone over the ship, being opposed in 
its progress to leeward by a stronger current of air from an 
opposite quarter. On this account, when clouds are in mo- 
tion from oi^posite quarters of the compass, a better lookout, 
if possible, should be kept to leeward than to windward. 

In June, July, and August the weather is very wet and 
squally. Sometimes dense masses of clouds are seen in 
rapid motion from the southeast, south, and southwest 
quarters of the horizon ; these clouds have a bulky and con- 
fused appearance, as if rolling over each other, are of a 

■■ Captain Midgley, (Ptirdifs Memoir, (fc.) 



WINDS — T1;A1)K-WIN1)S. î) 

«lirty, (lark ilnib rolor, with ia;i;\i;vd ed^os, with inky-lookiiij;- 
small clouds tiyinji" about their borders. In their ai)prorteli 
toward the zenith they ai>]»ear gradually to nnite and form 
the apex of an an.ule, and thus united blow with \ioleiiee 
from the S. \V. (piarter. (veerinu- two or three ])oints or more,) 
for upwards of two hours, during' which time the rain de- 
scends in torrents, perhai)s acc(nnpanied by a water-s))out or 
whirlwind. 

In this j)art of the ocean nîuch sheet lightnin.i;' is a sus- 
jiicious si.un,aiHl forked liuhtning- universally so; the latter 
is, in some dej»Tee, indicative of a <'han_ne, as well as an in- 
crease of wiud. 

After the wind has blown steadily, with tine weather for 
a few hours, and then comnu'uces to tly about, s<iualls and 
i-aiu may be expected. 

The month of July is probably the worst month of the 
year to traverse from X. to S. the belt A^hich separates the 
trade-winds; in this month fresh winds from the S. W., 
heavy squalls, and rain in torrents are encountered, the sea 
is short, and the currents run to the X. 

It is seen by the foregoing table that, in the northern hemi- 
sphere, the ]Sr. E. trade-wiuds approach, more or less, the 
Equator according to the season, but very rarely pass 
to the southward of it. On the contrary, the S. E. trades 
generally reach the Equator and i^ass considerably to the 
northward of it ; at times as far as the parallel of 5° N., 
l)articularly in the neighborhood of the coast of America. 
It hapi)ens, however, exceptionally, that the X. E. and S. 
E. trades unite in the open sea off the coast of Africa, and 
about the meiidian of 30° or 35° W. longitude ; one passes 
then from one of these winds to the other, without a calm, 
by a sudden shift of wind or a squall. 

Sometimes even, but principally from December to Feb- 
ruary, in the vicinity of the coast of Africa, the X. E, and 
S. E. trades approach so nearly that the limit of either is 
extremely uncertain. 

Xear the Equator the winds shift oftener from the E. to 
the S. than from the E. to the N. However, winds blowing 
from W. to jST. W and from W. to S. are found in this zone 
of variable winds, but principally from July to September. 

The preceding considerations are of the greatest import- 
ance in the general navigation of the ocean, and particularly 
for the Gulf of Guinea. 



10 WINDS — TKADE-W1ND&'. 

We will enlarge upon tliem hereafter in speaking of the 
routes to be followed iu traversing the Atlantic, for what- 
ever the route may be it is important to choose the point 
of crossing the Equator. 

The foregoing observations upon the winds of the first 
region of the Atlantic have been made in open sea, removed 
from the coasts ; those, by their influence, modify the winds 
at large in their force and direction ; however, it is stated, 
that in their northern and southern zones the trade- winds 
advance often very nearly to the coast of America, while they 
do not commence to be regularly felt to within about four 
hundred and twenty miles of the southern coast of Africa, 
and about four hundred and eighty from the coast comprised 
between Cape Verd and Cape Palmas. In this locality, at 
certain periods, principally from June to September, and 
even October, as far as the meridian of 28° W., variable 
winds are encountered blowing from the W, to N. W. and to 
the S. W., interrupted by calms, and accompanied by rains 
and thunder-storms. 

The islands situated in this region exercise in their vi- 
cinity a certain influence upon the trade- winds ; this influ- 
ence, however, is less sensible than that produced by the 
continents. It is remarked that the higher these islands 
are, the more they are subject to rains. In general, in the 
torrid zone, the winds which are steady in the open sea 
become variable in the vicinity of land which is high and 
of considerable extent. 
Seasons iu the Iu the Atlantic, under the torrid zone, the weather differs 

torrid zone. 

greatly, according to the situation of the places and the 
X)eriod of the year. It is observed that the air is more agi- 
tated in the spring time than in the autumn; more at the 
time of the equinoxes than during the months of summer 
and winter. 

In this zone, when the rainy season exists to the north of 
the Equator, it is dry to the south of it and vice versa. 
Korth of the Equator, in the torrid zone, the rainy season, 
commencing in the month of April or May, lasts until the 
month of September or October. The dry season com- 
mences in October or jSTovember, and lasts until April or 
May. 

In the torrid zone in places situated to the southward of 
the Equator the seasons are the opposite of those situated 
to the northward of it, and the changes take place about 



WIISDS — REASONS t)l' THE ToKUIl) ZONK. II 

the v^amc mouths. As a goneral riih' llic \\i!it(M- or rainy 
vseasoii in each hemisphere comiiience.s wIumi the sun icmov- 
iuii" tVom the lOquatov pas?;es to the /euith ol" the ))hu'e, aiul 
the dry season Avhen the sun returnin.u' to the Kfpiator 
has passed again tlie zenith of tliat i>laee. Although this 
hiw indicates plainly the seasons, it is subject to many ex 
ce[>tions, so that the seasons neither eomnu'nce nor end 
precisely at the epoch ol" these passages of tlie sun, but 
they take i)lace about that i>eriod. 

There is also a period of doul)tful ami uncertain wcatlu'i' 
between each season, Avith variable winds, calms, sijualls, 
and storms, some of which are called tornadoes. 

In many localities these storms take place at the com- 
mencement and end of the rainy season and are bounded 
by the jieriod of the lieaA'y rains. 

According to the law indicated it is seen that the dura- 
tion of winter depends in a great measure upon the latitude 
of the place, and that it should be longer as the locality' is 
more a])proxiniate to the Equator. 

The warmest season nnder the torrid zone is the winter ; 
it is also the season of variable winds and calms. In the 
dry season, on the contrary, the breezes are fresh and es- 
tablished, and the laiul and sea l>reezes blow with regular- 
ity, near the coast. 

In the region near the Efpiatiu' some distinguish four 
seasons, two dry and two rainy, but in reality they have 
named the dri/ seafioiis a portion of the lainy season, when 
the rains are less abundant and when the storms occur 
with intervals of tolerable weather. 

The second region of the Atlantic is, as has been said, s.hoiuI region 
that comprised between the parallel of 3tP latitude S. and ^'f^iio Atlantic. 
the South Pole. In this region we distinguish two zones, 
the frigi<l and the temperate zone. 

In the region of the frigid zone, where l)ut few have pen- 
etrated, there is a scarcity of observations ; besides, they 
relate to but one season, the summer, when navigators are 
able to penetrate furthest to the southward in this zone. 
The celebrated Cook, Admiral Dumout d'Urville, and Cap- 
tain Ross are the navigators who have penetrated into this 
gloomy region of the Atlantic. Cook, between the paral- 
lels of 00° and 7(P S. latitude, states that the winds are 
generally moderate; Foster adds that they blow frequently 
from' E. Cook besides «liscovered that the currents 



12 V/INDS — SOUTHERN FRIGID ZONE. 

ill these high hititodes, though inconsiderable, carried the 
ice to the X. E. by jST. and X. W. During a sojourn of 
fortj'-nine days in this region, where lie was not able to ad- 
vance beyond the parallel of 03° 33' S. latitude and where 
he remained closed in by the ice for many days in latitude 
02O 22' S., longitude 39° W., Admiral Dumont d'Crville 
has given the following observations which we extract from 
the cruise of the Astrolabe, in 1837.* 

Winds from B., variable from ]S^. ]S!. E. to S. S. E. and S.,. 
for twenty-seven days ; variable from iST. l^T. W. to S, S. W. 
during the months of January, February, and the com- 
mencement of March. In this interval the corvettes Astro- 
labe and Zélée experienced a gale from the în". accompanied 
by rain and fog; with the winds from S. S. W. anfl S. W. the 
w^eather was at times clear, at times overcast; the winds 
from these quarters wei'e in general moderate, though some- 
times fresh. 

The winds from N. B. to E. !N. E. were sometimes accom- 
panied with clear, but most frequently with cloudy and foggy, 
weather. Snow fell generally with the winds at B. S. E., 
X. N. W., and X. E.; the same winds brought fog. The 
strongest winds were those from the E., the E. S. E., and S. 
S. E., which in general blew very fresh. 

Captain Ross crossed the parallel of 00° S. latitude the 
23d of December, 1842. During his stay in the frigid zone, 
which extended to the 1st of March, he made observations 
upon the winds, of which the following is the resume :■!■ 

December, 1842, w^inds from W., variable from N. W. to S. 
W., six days ; wind ^. a half day ; Avind S. a day and a half; 
wind S. B. a day. The winds were moderate, those from the 
S, blew a stiff breeze. 

January, 1843, winds to theE., a ariable from the In. E. to 
S. B., twelve days; wind from the N. two days; wind from 
S. three days and a half; winds from W., variable from N. 
N. W. to S. S. W., thirteen days and a half. In this month 
two days only the winds were very fresh from N. W., the 
remainder they were but fresh and moderate. 

February, winds to the B., variable from î^. N. E. to S. S. 
B., eighteen and a half days; wind from îsT. two days; wind 
from S. three days ; wind to the W., variable from I^T. W. to 

^ Partie xyliyslque, n'dujée par M. Tlneendon-DnmouUn, l»génieiir lii/dro- 
graplie, p. M. 

t Sir James Eoss^s Voyage to the Southern Seas, (vol. ii, p. 330,) &c. 



WINDS — SOI THEUN TKMrKKA'l'H /ONK. l.'i 

S. W., four aiid a half (ia\s. There was one (hiy of strong 
wind blowiiiji' from the N., and one day with a stiff wind 
from the 1'.: for the remain<ler the winds were fresh or 
moderate. 

We yatlier from the ])recediii<;' observations that (Inrin.m 
the summer, in the frigid zone, the second rej^iou of the 
Athuiti<', tlu' winds blow variably from the K. and W., the 
winds from the E. ]>redominatin.ii-. 

In the temjx'rate zone of this region the winds from ^'^'- ,, J^'onL' «outi" 
l)redominate ami vary from N, W. to S. W. Ju this ])ortion 
of the Atlantic Ocean, however, the winds are variable and 
blow' without regularity. 

The winds from tlie W. extend often to tlu' Tropic of Ca])- 
ricoru, and, at times, to the parallel of 1^0° S. 

It is remarked that in the zone comprised l)etween the 
parallel of 28° and 35° S., the winds are extremely variable; 
those which are most frecpiently encountered vary from the 
N. E. to the ^^ W. by the X., and from the N. W. to the W. 
S. W. l)y the AV., principally in June, Jnly, aiul Angust.* 

The winds from the westward varying from IST, W. to S. 
W., which predominate between the parallels of 30° and 50'^ 
S., appear to be produced by the fusion of the return cur- 
rents, directe<l from the W. to the E., occasioned by the 
trade-winds, which we have styled "tropical winds," with 
the polar currents directed from the poles toward the 
Equator. 

The winds which result from these two currents of air 
should take nearly a mean direction, depending on the force 
of the contending currents, and necessarily this direction 
must be very varial>le, though inclining generally to the W. 
It is observed that between the parallels of 30° to 50° S. 
the winds blow periodically from S. W. to K. W. ; varying 
from W. to X. W. while the sun is in southern declination, 
and during the remainder of the year from W. to S. W., ac- 
companied by storms and bad weather, t In this zone the 
easterly Avinds are never of long duration. When the winds 
haul to the soutlnvard a calm generally follows, and between 
Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, when the wind 
blows for many days in succession from the N., it brings 
overcast and rainy w^eather. If they pass to the S. of W. 
the sky clears and the weather becomes tine. | 

The third region of the Atlantic Ocean is comi^rised 1)C- ^, ^^^}i} i»^?'»" of 
* Dainx)ier. t Nicbelson. i D'Après de Maimevillettc. 



14 WINDS — NOIITIIEJLN FKKilD ZONE, 

tweeii tlie latitude of 30° N. aiul tlie îiortîi Pole; as the- 
precetliug, we divide it into two zones, the frigid zone and 
the teinperate zone. 
riigid zone of In tile li'igid zone of the north, comprised between the 

the north. '^ ' ^ ■ 

parallel of G0° N. latitude and the pole, and embraced be- ■ 
tween Europe and America, in which are situated Spitz- 
bergen and Iceland, there appears to be no regular wind ; 
the vicinity of the land, the snow and ice which covers and 
surrounds it, exercise upon the currents of air an influence 
varying greatly Avith the season. The different navigators 
who have passed over this zone, called the "Frozen Arctic 
Ocean," haye not found that the winds follow any law,* 
particularly during the summer ;t many navigators, how- 
ever, recognize the winds from the S". as predominant. 

All the winds in this zone are accompanied by cold and 
snow, except during a part of June, July, and August ; at 
this period, with the winds from the S., the climate is com- 
paratively mild, though snow and rain fall, and fog ac- 
comx)anies these winds, during these months. The coldest 
winds are those from î^. and N. E. ; in June and July the 
winds frequently blow from S. S. W., and at times with con- 
siderable violence. 

During the months of April and May the southerly winds 
bring snow ; during the remainder of the year, bad weather 
with thick fogs. 
Spitzhergen. At Spitzbcrgeu it is said that during the first months of 
tlie year the winds blow from the southward, and during- 
the- other months from the northward. The winds from S. 
E. and JST. E. are those whicli bring most snow. | 

The following observations were made by Captain Parry 
in his voyage to the Xorth Pole, in the Hecla, on the winds 
between the i)arallels of 70° and 82° 40' IST. during tlie 
months of May, June, July, and August, 1827 : 



Days. 

N 7^ 

N.N.W ' 51 

N. W 9 

W.KW 2 

W 13 

AV. S. W 1 

S.W --. 9 

S.S.W 1 

S 4 



Days. 

S. S.E '2 

S.E 12 

E.'S.E Oi 

E 17-1- 

E. N. E U 

N.E 9i- 

N.N.E 11 

Calms 13-^ 

Variable 4^ 



* Plâpjfs Voyage to ike North Pole ; Barrington, of the Society of 
LoikIoii, ^ho lias collected the ohsevvations of whalers. 

t Captain Standidge. X Grey. 



WINDS — NOKTIIKWN TEMl'EKATE ZONE. 15 

At Nova Zi'!iil>l;i, from S('i>tt'iul)rr r<> ^lay, tlu' wind blows ^'ova Zcmbia. 
from till' iiortliward almost witliont interruption ; iVom May 
to Au,uiist, from tlu' Avcstward.* 

In tlu' t('mi)erati' zone, comprised between the pai-allehs Temperate 
ot oi)^ and (»()°;N. latitnde, the prevailmg- Minds are as m 
the ('orresi)ondinj.;' zone of the 0|)i)osite hemisphere, from 
the westward, vai-yinji' from X. AV. to S. W. The predomi- 
nant westerly winds of this zone are, without doubt, due to 
the same causes indicated for those in the corresponding- 
zone in the southern hemisphere; they are produced by the 
currents of air, called " tropical winds,'' directed from the 
W. to the E., and the polar currents directed from the N. to 
the S. The direction which they assume depending upon 
the relative intensity of these two currents, should be the 
mean. The predominance of the S. W. winds in the tem- 
perate zone of the northern hemisphere is established by 
the fact of the difference between the time taken for the 
voyage from the north of Europe to Xorth America, and 
that for the return voyage. From Liverpool to New York, 
the mean is abinit forty days; from Xew York to Liverpool 
the mean is about twenty-three days. 

The mean direction of the prevailing" wind in this zone, 
deduced from numerous ol)servations, has been determined 
as follows by Kaemtz: France, S. 88° W.; England, S. GO^ 
W.; Germany, S. 76^ W.; Denmark, S. 02° W.; Sweden, 
S. 500 ^Y.. Kiissia, X. 87° W.; America, S. 80° W. Eussia 
is the only country where the direction of the wind inclines 
to the X. Its most general direction in the Atlantic is be- 
tween S. 450 W. and S. 70° W. 

When the sun is in the northern hemisphere the prevail- 
ing westerly winds are from S. W. to W. S. W. On the 
contrary, if the sun is in the southern hemisphere, the winds 
are from W. IST. W. to N. W.; this last i^eriod is that of 
storms and bad weather on the coasts of North America 
and Europe. 

Having indicated the winds met with in the open sea, in 
the Atlantic Ocean, it now remains, in terminathig the dis- 
cussion, to speak of those encountered near the coasts which 
form this basin. We will commence by making some gen- 
eral remarks upon the coast of Africa. 

Land and sea breezes blow with great regularity on cer- Land and sea 
tain coasts, particularly in the continents between the 

^ Romme. 



10 AVINDS — LAND AND SEA BREEZES. 

tropics and the islands situated in tlie torrid zone, so much 
so that they could be ranked with the periodical winds. 

In general the sea breeze blows during- the day, and the 
land breeze, comnienciug toward the evening, continues 
during a part of the night, blowing in the opposite direc- 
tion ; it ceases, ordinarily, shortly after sunrise, seldom con- 
tinuing until 9° or 10° a. m. Philosophers attribute these 
breezes to the difference of temperature of the sea and land- 

On the coast of Africa, and near to its shore, it is re- 
marked that on the coast of Morocco the sea breeze blows 
oftenest from N. W. ; upon the coast of Guinea, from S. to 
S. W. ; upon that of Loango and Congo, from S. W. to W. 

These breezes alternate almost always with the land 
breezes ; ordinarily they are only felt at a short distance 
from the land, though at times they find their way well in 
the offing, when they diminish gradually, until, arrested by 
the regular winds, they disappear. 

The localities where these contacts take place are most 
always subject to storms accompanied Avitli rain. 

The general exi)lauation of the alternating breezes of 
land and sea as given hj philosopliers, is, that in the morn- 
ing the temperature of the earth and the sea being- nearly 
the same, it is calm near the coast; but when the sun rises 
above the horizon and the earth becomes heated more than 
the water, the sea breeze springs up ; light at first, it in- 
creases gradually until it attains its maximum, with the 
maximum heat of the day, then it diminishes gradually 
with the fall of the temperature until night, when there 
is an interval of calm ; at night, when the earth is colder 
than the sea, the land breeze springs up and attains its 
greatest force at the period of the minimum temperature of 
the night. It continues until day, and at times, according 
to the locality, until 8 or 9 a. m. 

A knowledge of these breezes is useful, and particularly 
advantageous to local navigation, and should always be 
taken advantage of to shorten a voyage. 
Solar iireezes. There cxist, besides, on some parts of the west coast 
of Africa, breezes which might be termed solar, their vari- 
ations appearing to be subject to the action of the sun. 
In jST. latitude they are found i)rincipally on the coast of 
Senegambia and on the coast which extends from Cape 
Lopez to Cape Negro, to the south of the Equator. 

Upon the former these breezes vary from î^. W. to S. W., 



AV INDS — I[AU:\IAT TAxX. 1 7 

upon {\w InttiM-, from S. K. to S. and S. W„ nnd ovon to W. 
S. W. 

Tliose broczos blow fresh on the coast of Senegaiubin, more 
especially from November to April, and upon the lattei' 
coast from October to March and even to Apiil. The bieeze 
from the oflin^' blows during- the day, gaining- its greatest 
force after noon aiul dying away towards evening. Tn the 
night it hauls and blows more from the land. 

In the local navigation on these coasts the tacks shouUl 
be so regulated as to be near the land when tlie night 
breeze commences and in the offing when it shifts to the 
day breeze. These breezes, so similar to the land and sea 
breezes, never blow directly fnun the land. They are at 
times very strong, though never felt far from the coast ; to 
profit by them short tacks should be made of twelve, fif- 
teen, or at most thirty miles. 

The harmattan is a wind peculiar to the west coast of uaiiuattan. 
Africa ; it blows from the E., variable to E. îf. E ; on the 
northern coast, from the latitude of Madeira to that of the 
Gaboon Eiver ; it is at times very fresh up(ui the coasts of 
Senegal and Senegambia, but it is liglit generally on the 
coast of Guinea. 

It is a cold, drying wind, blowing ordinarily in series of 
three, six, or nine days, generally from the end of Novem- 
ber to February and March. It extends but a sliort dis- 
tance from the coast. It sometimes commences at sunrise 
and dies out after noon. 

This wind is often accompanied by a haze, and at times 
it is charged with a fine, red dust so thick that objects can 
be distinguished only at a short distance, especially near 
the coast. 

Its dryness at Senegal is extraordinary and produces the 
most remarkable effects. It is called healthy, though very 
disagreeable and troublesome. Its great advantage is the 
production of the gum. It arrests suddenly the circulatior. 
of the sap, which is very active at this season, when the 
winter rains finish, and compels it to leave the trunk of the 
shrubs upon which this product, the principal commei- 
cial riches of Senegal, is formed. 

Tornadoes are sudden storms of short duration and fre- Tornadoes. 
quent on the west coast of Northern Africa. To the south 
they are little felt and not very strong. Tliese squalls, 
which have taken their name from the sudden variations 
2 AO 



18 WINDS — TORNADOES. 

of wind (luiiug their continuance, are indicated, long in ad- 
vance, hj clouds of a palish or copper color by day, and 
excessively dark at night. They collect to the îsT. and N. E., 
coming up generally against the wind ; almost always electric 
phenomena give notice of tornadoes, and little by little the 
prevailing wind falls and dies away. 

All precautions should by this time have been taken. The 
clouds, black and gloomy, extend rapidly along the horizon, 
and rise slowly, forming a smooth, regular arc of a circle, 
furrowed every moment by lightning. The more regular 
and distinct the arc is, the inore violent you may ex])ect the 
wind. 

There are some seconds of cahn, then all at once you feel 
the breeze from N. B. violent, and chasing before it the 
storm, which bursts with all its fury when it has attained 
30° to 40° above the horizon. 

From the E". E. the wind jumps quickly to the B. or to 
the S. E., blowing with the same force ; the storm ceases 
then with rain. When the wind, commencing to die out, 
passes to the S. or to the S. W. it is often calm after a 
tornado. It is generally remarked that those are the most 
violent where the wind precedes the rain. 

Every vessel should reduce sail in time to these sudden 
storms, which seldom continue more than an hour or an 
hour and a half. One can never foresee the extent of these 
violent commotions of the atmosphere, which at times re- 
semble, from their force, hurricanes of short duration, in 
which the wind shifts so suddenly that if a sail shakes it 
will inevitably go. 

The S. W. winds on the west coast of Africa are moment- 
arily interrupted at certain periods, especially in winter, 
from polar currents of air, which, forjning in the Mediterra- 
nean and upon the coast of Portugal, arrive abruptly to 
increase the trade-winds of the N. and make them sud- 
denly approach toward the Equator. The meeting of 
these winds with the S. W. winds, there predominant at 
this period, may contribute to cause tornadoes. They are 
very frequent and violent in the northern hemisphere. On 
the contrary, as has been stated, to the south of the Equa- 
tor, these atmospheric disturbances are rarely experienced. 

On the coast of the Gaboon and in the Gulf of Biafra 
tornadoes blow sometimes from the N. W. to the W. and to 
the S. W., but this is of very seldom occurrence. In the 



iioitlic'iii lii'iiiis[)lieio toiinuloos may br «'xpccte<l [u'iucipally 
at the comiiuMiceinent of the winter, therefore the period 
wlieii tlicy pievail varies with the h)cality. Thus they are 
encountered at Cape Palinas a month before they are at 
Sierra Leone. Tliey arrive at Goree and at Saint Louis a 
month and a half after they reach Sierra Leone, 

In many hu-alities tliey occur eipially at the end of the 
winter season , but principaliy from the Bissa^os Archipehijio 
as far as Cape I'ahnas and tlie coast of Guinea. In the Gulf 
of Guinea they blow especially in the nu)nths of March, 
April, and 31 ay, and re<'ominence in ]S"ovember and Decem- 
ber, in some localities. 

South of the E<piator the tornadoes blow generally from 
S. Vj., and take i>lace ])articularly from ]March to June and 
from September to October. They decrease in violence as 
you proceed south, and in the latitude of the Congo Elver 
they are most frequently s(|ualls without wind, forming' in 
the E., hauling- to the S., and terminating at S. W. 

They resemble much squalls which aae at times met with 
in the northern hemisphere. They are analogous with tor- 
muloes, from the variations of the wind, but not in their 
violence. 

On the coasts of Angola and Benguela these squalls are 
frequent in the evening, in November and December, but 
wind rarely acconq)anies them. Ou the contrary, the heav- 
ier the clouds baidc up the more the wind falls to a flat 
calm. The}- scatter generally about 10 or 11 o'clock in the 
evening, and a light breeze springs up off the laud, which 
often lasts during the night. 

For about six huudred miles to the westwar<l of the Cape vkiuitj- of the 

A" /^i 1 TT ji ti -i-i • 1 n 1 T, . Cape ot Good 

ot Crood Hope the S. L, Avinds are found, generally IroniHope. 
the month of October to March and even April. From the 
month of May to August, in this locality and for about 
three hundred miles west of the cape, the winds are very 
\ariable from N. W. to S. W., with bad weather and a rough 
sea. The same winds extend six hundred miles to eastward 
of the Cape of Good Hope. In coming- from the east or 
west during this season, the weather becomes worse as you 
approach the cape. The winds from N. W. bring fogs, rain, 
and mist. With the wind from S. W. the Aveather is clear 
and cold. These winds are felt both to the eastward and 
to the westward of the cape, but only in squalls during the 
mouths of April and May. These squalls are indicated by 



'20 WINDS — CÎAPE OF aOOD HOPE. 

the banking- up of the clouds in the west ; the wiud coin- 
meiices' to blow with violence from W. î"!". W. to W. ; it 
shifts suddenly to the S. W., and hauling to the southward 
it moderates and becomes calm.* 
To double the When the season is advanced, in doubling the Cape of 

Cape of Good ' ^ ^ 

Hope from the Good Hopc froui the east, D'Après de Manuevillette recom- 
mends not to keep at a greater distance from the coast than 
forty miles, and not to approach it nearer than eighteen 
miles, in order to keep in a locality where the winds are 
less violent and the sea less heavy. 

The squalls and storms spoken of above are very fre- 
quent in the winter; they are accompanied by rains so 
abundant that often two pleasant days do not occur consec- 
utively. According to many navigators this bad weather 
is experienced as far east as the meridian of Madagascar. 

On tlie parallel of 36° S. from six hundred to seven 
hundred and fifty miles to the eastward and westward 
of the Cape of Good Hope, the winds from N. W., which 
are violent in its vicinity, become more moderate and shift 
to the S. S. W. In general between the parallels of 33° 
S. and 36° S. the winds from the westward appear to 
Xiredominate. 
To double the In coiuing froiu the westward to double the Cape of Good 

Hope from the Hopc, it wiU bc most advautageous to run well off shore, 
on the parallel of 35° or 36° S., and to enter the Indian 
Ocean on this last parallel, thus taking advantage of the 
Atlantic currents flowing to the eastward. 

Ca'^^i'^'^of %ood ^^ ^^^ G'Ai>e of Good Hope and Table Bay, September, 

Hope. October and îsTovember are the spring; December, January, 

and February the summer; March, April, and May the au- 
tumn, and June, July and August the winter months. 

The following table is a resume of the prevailing winds 
through the year, taken from a series of observations made 
for many years at Cape Town, t 

During the winter ships should not anchor in Table Bay.i: 
If they put into port at this season of the year they should 
enter False Bay. 

The approach of winter in the vicinity of the Cape of 
Good Hope is announced by interruptions in the ])revailing 
S. E. winds, which blow equally, but with less force. 

* D'Après de Manuevillette. t Rorsburgli's India Directory. 

X A secure mole is now nearly constructed at Cape Town. 



WINDS — WF.ST COAST OF AFiJlfA. 
Hindu at (he Cape of (lood IIopv. 



Mouths. 



.laiinnry ■ 

I''i'lini:ii\ 

Maicli .. 

April .... 
.M:iv 



Winds. 



llcinaiUs. 



Aiijjust ... 
September 
October... 
Xovember 
December. 



S.E 

S. K 

!^. E 

S. E. an<l X. W 
N. W 

N. W 

N. ami N. N. W 

X. W 

S. E. 

X.^' 

N. W. ami S. E . 
S.E 



Dry, warm ; occasional rains Avith winds 

from X. AV. 
Temperature variable : occasional lieavv 

rains witb wind from X'. AV. 
Stroiiiï .squalls from X'. "W. : .■^tornis : U;;lit 

rains ; fojr. 
Stron<; squalls, temp(>ratui-e vaiiable ; fog. 
AVeather fine at the commenci^meut of this 

niontli, thunder and storms at the end. 
Strong squalLs at times fidui S. E. and X. I-]. : 

rain, thunder, and storms. 
Frequent- squalls : cold: fog: snow ; rain: 

hail. 
Same weather. 
Weather variable and mild. 
Heavy rains, thunder and lightning. 
"W'ann, dry; moderate breezes. 
"When the wind blows X. W. fine breezes ; 

wann and drv. 



If a line is drawn from tlie Cape of Good Hope to Cape General winds 
Palmas, this line will indicate nearly the boundary which wa-st'' of ^mc™ 
separates the S. E. trade-winds from the prevailing winds GocKi^'^Hope^'ana 
which blow during the whole year in the space comprised ^^'''p^^'*'™'"'' 
l)etween this line and the coast of Africa, varying from S. 
S. E. to S. S. W. and S. W. 

The distance from the coast that these wimls are felt is 
variable, as will be seen by their boundary, and thej' will 
increase in strength as they approach the Cape of Good 
Hope. It lias been remarked that most Irequently the wind 
on this porti(m()f tlie coast makes an. angle of about 22° 
with the coast. 

At two hundred and forty or three hundred miles from 
the coast, north of Guinea, and upon the line of demarcation 
mentioned, the ordinary S. E. trade is found, which at this 
distance commences to incline towards the coast, and as this 
distance decreases it hauls to the S., S. S. AV., and to the S. 
\V. On the line of demarcation of the trades, calms, varia- 
ble winds and storms are frequent. 

On the coasts of Hottentotia and Cimbebasia (orDamara) coa.st of Hot 
the breezes are fresh from S. during nearly the whole year, Ss^ia ''(or^T 
varying from S. S. E. to S. S. W. They are affected at times "''"'■'*'^ 
by heavy squalls. As you <lraw off from the coast these 



22 YflNDS — nOAST OF BENGUELA, ETC. 

breezes dimiuisli iii streiigtb, and lianliug to S. and S. S. E. 
they are lost in the S. E. trades. 
CoastofBengu- On the coast of Bengnehi and AngoUï the weather is gen- 
erally tine the year round, excepting during the months of 
March and April. 

lu the months of November, December, January, and Feb- 
ruary, the breezes blow fresh from the S. S. W., hauling to 
S. W., W. S. W., and exceptionally to W. î^. W., and render 
the navigation of the coast easy at this period. 

In November and December light rains occur, esi)ecially 
in the morning, when the wind comes to S. E, or to S. ; as soou 
as it blows from S. W. tlie weather clears. Sometimes 
there are indications of squalls with lightnhig, particularly 
in the evening. It is rarely the case that these squalls con- 
tain wind : on the contrary, the breeze generally decreases 
to a calm. 

It is seldom the case, as has been already said, that these 
indications continue beyond 10 or 11 o'clock in the evening, 
aud as soon as they dissipate a light land breeze springs up 
lasting generally during the uight. 

March and April are the worst months of the year ; they 
. are the months of storms and rains. But immediately on 
the wind coming from S. W. the weather clears. The land 
breeze prevails at this period, blowing from the S. E. in 
squalls, antl at times from the N. E. These squalls have no 
resemblance to the tornadoes which are experienced to the 
northward of the Equator, 

From the month of May to the month of October, called 
the fine season, the weather is frequently overcast, particu- 
larly in the morning. It is then seldom the case that the 
breeze from the offing conies in fresh ; it is also rare, on the 
contrarj", that it fails when the sky is clear, aud the quicker 
the sky clears the fresher will be the breeze. 

In May and June there is less calm, the sea breeze com- 
mences late and the land breeze continues fresh after sun- 
rise. 

In July, August, September and October the S. W. winds 
are fresh aud steady. They are felt near the coast at 10 or 
11 o'clock in the morning, and die out gradually at sunset, 
seldom lasting beyond 7 or 8 o'clock in the evening. In the 
month of October they last sometimes until midnight; they 
are replaced by the land breeze until 8 or 9 o'clock in the 



WINDS — COAST OK LOANOO. I'.'J 

iiioriiiiiii. Ill îlic iiitciviU between tliese breezeis it is ycn- 
erally cabu.* 

On the coast of t'onji'o the breezes are generally moderate; <'"«st of Congo, 
they blow IVoni ^September to ^larcli between the S. and 
AV. From JMareh to October they prevail from S. S. E., 
and at times blow with force fiom between E. and X. Kx- 
ce])tionally they are found fresh between N. and AV., prin- 
cipally from the month of A})ril to .\ngust. In this season 
there are heavy rains. 

In the line season, from September to March, the land and 
sea bi^eezes succeed each other with regularity. They are 
less steady during the rainy season, which lasts three months, 
from November to February. 

In the Congo Eiver the seasons and winds are nearly the inver Congo. 
same as upon the coast to the southward of this river. But 
the further south the more the seasons are retarded. Thus, 
in the Congo Eiver the rainy season is from October to 
January. 

On the coast of Loango, from the month of September to Coast of Loan- 
March, the prevailing winds are from S. to AV. In December ^"' 
and January there are violent squalls from AA". to S. A^". 
From March to October the winds are generally from S. S. 
E., varying to S. and S. AV. 

The land and sea breezes are regular upon this coast, ex- 
cept during the rainy season from September to December. 
Tornadoes occur in March, April, May, often in September 
and October, and sometimes in January and February. 
These tornadoes, though generally' less violent than those 
encountered north of the Equator, are sufticiently so to ne- 
cessitate tahing in all sail. 

In the vicinity of Cape Lopez, from the month of June to t-ipe Lopez. 
October, the winds blow almost always from the S. They 
are in general n>o<lerate, as are also the winds from S. S. AA'., 
which blow iu_ the other months. 

Toward the end of ISTovember there are storms and heavy 
rains. The heaviest tornadoes are experienced in March 
and April: they blow even in îfovember, December, and 
January. There are also squalls which only ditier from 
tornadoes in being less violent. 

On the east coast of the Gulf of Biafra, there are recog- Guif of Biafra. 
nized generally Init two seasons. That of tornadoes and 
storms lasts from March to the middle of September. July 

* Captain Simou, Directions for the Coast of Angola and Benguela. 



24 WINDS — GULF OF BIAFEA. 

and August arc comparatively the driest montlis, and the 
breezes ■ from S. S. W. are generally fresh in these months. 
They vary to S. S. E., blowing- fresh at times, and then they 
extend to the north of the Bqnator as far as 2° or 3° IST. 
latitude. The rainy season commences in September and 
lasts until March ; it is the season of calms, and light breezes 
from S. to W. S. W. and S. W. 
Prince's Island The islands of the Gulf of Biafra, Prince's Island, Saint. 

San Thomas, and ' ' 

Annobon. Thomas, aud Annobon have the same winds as are found on 

the coast opposite to which they are situated, only the sea 
and land breezes are more regular and fresher. .These 
breezes cease nearly during the rainy season. They never 
extend far from the coast of either the continent or the 
islands. 

„^ft^l. coast of Q^ ^i^g north coast of the Gulf of Biafra, of Benin, and 

Gulf ot Biafra, ' " 

Gulf of Benin and generally on the coast of the Sea of Gninea, the i>revailing 

coast from Saint <= ^^ 7 j- o 

Paul to Cape Pal- Tppinds are from S. W. to W., and blow more or less fresh, 

mas. 

according to the season, the year through. These winds 
are always moderate. 

The harmattan blows upon this coast in E'ovember, De- 
cember, and January. Its direction is E., and it is never 
strong. 

Erom October to February, the period called the fine 
seasoUj the land and sea breezes blow near the coast ; the 
former never extend more than twelve miles from the coast,. 
and are always light. 

The tornadoes blow on this coast from March to Maj'. In 
the latter month, in the- Gulf of Benin and the Gnlf of Bi- 
afra, one may be expected every forty-eight hours, and 
even two on the same day. They are extremely violent.. 
On the ivory and g'old coasts they occur in June. 

The season of the heavy rains in the Gulf of Benin and 
the Gulf of Biafra is from August to September. On the 
ivory and gold coasts it is from May to June. 

The fogs, which are very dense upon this part of the 
coast of Africa, occur in July, August, and September, and 
also from December to February upon the ivory and gold 
coasts. In the Gulfs of Benin and Biafra tliey are found 
mostly from October to February. These fogs commence, 
ordinarily, at 3h. in the morning, and disperse at from lOh. 
to llh. before noon. 
Island of Per- In the Islaud of Fernando Po the climate is the same as 
that on the neighboring coast of the Gulf of Biafra. The 



^vl^Il)S — COAST i)V LiinoinA. -Jo 

liannattan blows tluTo I'rom J>cceiubi.'r to Fobnuuy. which 
is the most lioalthy season. 

On these coasts and islands the land and sea biee/es either 
cease or are very irregular dnrin<;' the rainy season. 

At the Island of St. Helena the S. V. winds blow nearly Maiui of st. 

. . Helen.i. 

the whole year. They are only interrn])ted ei.nht or nnie 
days during the year by light winds from the \V. These 
interruptions are i)rin('ii)ally in June, July, and November. 
In the last month there are sometimes six days of winds 
from this direction. 
At the Island of Ascension the winds are the sanu' as at island of As- 

. T^T , T -1 , , 1 1 i . 1 ceiision. 

St. TTelena, and are moderate throughout the year. 

In the vicinity of Cape Palmas, to south of the cape, CapePaimas. 
the prevailing winds are from W. S. W. ; to the north of 
the cape they blow from S. W. and from S. S. W., and in 
the tine season, from December to March, they vary from 
\V. S. W. to W. K. W. The rainy season lasts from May 
to October. 

The same winds ])revail on the coast of Liberia. The, coast of Li- 
heavy rains occur in July and August 5 in Ain-il and May 
violent tornadoes. These cease during the heavy rains, to 
commence again in October and November. 

In the tine season the sea and laud breezes are steady ; 
the latter are felt twelve miles olf the coast. The land 
breeze varies from N. N. W. to N. N. E., and blows from 
midday to midnight. The sea breeze varies from W. S. W. 
to W. X. W. The change takes place by a gradual hauliug 
of the wind to the northward in the middle of the season — 
to the southward at its commencement or end.* Tht^re is 
often an interval of calm between the land and sea breeze. 

The harmattan blows in December, only at intervals, and 
without violence. It is neither cold nor disagreeable as 
upon that part of the coast situated north of Cape St. Anne. 
It is a general remark that upon the coast of Liberia, dur- 
ing the rainy season, the weather is always better near the 
coast than it is thirty or forty miles in the ofting. At this 
distance, during this season, calms, heavy rains, light and 
variable breezes prevail ; tornadoes and squalls also occur. 
In the latter, as in tornadoes, the wind blows principally 
from the E., but without violence. 

On the coast of Sierra Leone, in the hue season, from coast of sierra 

, Leone. 

* Le Commandaut Baudiu ; le Coinniandaut Bouët-Willaiimez. 



Î6 



WINDS — SIEKKA LEONE. 



-iS-eroa Leone, 



November to April, the prevailiug winds are tliose from N. 
N. W: to ]Sr. W. In the winter they are from S. W., vari- 
able to W. S. W. and W. N. W., blowing at times with 
force from the W. 

The harmattan blows with violence at times in November 
and December ; in the other months it is a light and mod- 
erate breeze. It is not permanent, and only blows at inter- 
vals, and varies from E. S. E. to N. E. by the E. 

Tornadoes occur in May ; they cease, in a great measure, 
during the heavy rains of June to September, and they re- 
appear in September, October, and November. 

In the winter season the breezes are mostly light, varying 
from S. W. to W. S. W., interrupted by breezes from N. W. 

In the fine season, from the Isles of Los to Cape St. Ann, 
the alternate land and sea breezes blow. The angle of their 
variation is comprised between W. S. W. and E. jST. E., shift- 
ing by the IST. The sea breeze blows from lOh. or llh. in 
the morning until midnight. The change of the land and 
sea breeze is b}^ the IsT. after a calm interval, or a suc- 
cessive hauling of the breeze to W. IsT. W., IST. W., jST., and 
N. E. 

Finally, the prevailing winds on this coast are from the 
westward — W. N. W. in the fine season, and W. S. W. to 
S. W. during the winter, from May to November. 

The following is a table of the winds in the Eiver of 
Sierra Leone, from numerous observations during a vear; 



JTiiids ill ilie Eiver of Sierra Leoin 



Months. 


Winds. 


Eemarks. 


January 


IS.W 


Sea breeze in the afternoon, liarmattan in 
the morning. 


February 


N.W 


Occasional storms with rain. 


March 


x.w 


Tornadoes. 




N. W. to S. W 


Do. 


May 


S.E.toS.W 


JSTo tornadoes ; occasional thunder-squalls. 


June . - 


S.E.toS.W 


Eains with wind at S. E. : lieat oppressive. 


July 


S.E.toS.W 


Do. 


August 


S.E.toS.W 


Do. 


September 


E.toS.W 


Tornadoes. 


October 


W.N.W. toS.W. 


Weather overcast ; heat oppressive. 


ISTovember 


N.E.toW.KW.. 


Do. 


December ' 


N. E. to îs^. W 


Weather overcast, thunder and lightning in 
the evening. 



WINDS — COAST OF SKNIUI AM MlA. 'J7 

In till' year IS'M, on an avciaiir. tluMc were in fJanuaiy 
ihirty-ono l>leasant days; in Fclunary, twenty-cijibt ; in 
Maicli, tliirty-one <lays overcast or witli mist; in April, 
twenty-six line days, and four with log-; in ]May, fourteen 
days with tine weather, thirteen Avith rain, and three with 
Ibi;- : in .1uly, tive fine days, twenty-three with lain, and 
iliree with fog; in August, two fine days and twenty-nine 
with rain; in September, ten line daj^s and twenty days 
with rain; in October, twenty line days, six with rain, and 
live with fog ; in November, twenty -one good days, tive of 
rain, and four of fog; in December, twenty-three fine days, 
lour with rain, and four with fog. 

On the coast, and in the ArchipL'lag-i of the Bissagos, the coast of tho 
winds from AV., variable to W. X. AN', and H. AV., "prevail J^f^lf^ ^'■*'^"- 
during nine months of the year. They blow without cessa- 
tion during the winter months, from May to October, from 
W. K W. to S. W., shifting by the AV. They are at times 
violent in the months of July and August. The tornadoes 
happen principally in June; also in Septem])er and October. 

The liarmattau blows at times with considerable force in 
November, l)ecend)er, Jaiuiary, and in the first part of Feb- 
ruary. During the fine season, on the whole of this coast, 
and in the archipelago, the land and sea breezes blow. The 
land breeze from N. E to E. X. ]C. and p]. S. E. until Sh. 
or 9h. in the morning: until llh., or to noon, it is calm; 
then the sea breeze comes in from A^'. X. AA'. or AV. S. W., 
and lasts until after sunset, giving place to the land breeze, 
which commences toward midnight. 

On the coast of Senegambia, during the fine season, which Coast of Sene- 
continues from September or October to IMay, the prevail- ""' 
ing winds are from X. E.. varying to X'. AV. l)y the X". Upon 
all this coast the solar breeezes are well established and reg- 
idar ; they are in general moderate, though at times fresh. 
The harmattan blows with violence in Xovember, Decem- 
ber, and January, and becomes moderate in February and 
.>rarch. It continues at times three, six, or nine consecu- 
tive days, and at others oidy during a forenoon. 

In the winter months violent tornadoes are experienced in 
May and June. The heavy rains commence in July, and 
continue during the month of August, and at the end of 
this month tornadoes may be expected again. The prevail- 
ing winds in this season are from S. AV.. light and inter- 



28 WINDS — CAPE VERB ISLANDS, ETC. 

riipted by calms. Exceptionally they blow with force from 
the W; 

During the Hue season the land and sea breezes are ex- 
perienced on this coast -, but the most regular are the solar 
breezes, varying' from N. înT. E. to N. in the niorning, and 
from i^. to N. IST. W. and W. in the evening. During the 
night the breeze blows weak from E. and E. ÎST. E. 
Cape verii In the Cape Verd Islands, from November to Ma v, the 

Islands. " ' 

general winds vary from N. E. to N. and N. N. W. Dur- 
ing the three tirst months they are ordinarily more to the 
jST. than upon the coast of Senegal. In June they blow 
from the E., and diminish in force. The rains commence at 
the end of this month. From July to October there are 
tornadoes and rain. In the rainy season, from June to Oc- 
tober, the winds are from the S., variable to the S. E. and 
S. W., with storms and frequent fog, and blow at times 
with violence. After the 15th of August it is not prudent 
to anchor in the bays of these islands which are exposed 
to the S. W. and S. E. 

Coast of Seiie- On the coast of Senegal, and from Cape Blanco to Cape 
Verd, the winds from E. to N. E. prevail from October to 
May; that is, during eight months. The winter season 
lasts from June to October, and during this season there 
are tornadoes and light winds from S. W. to W. S. W. 
' At some distance from the coast, in tiie fine season, 
winds are often found from the N. W., which blow on the 
shore, while more in the offing the N. E. winds are found. 
This coast is also subject to the solar breezes, varying 
from N. E. to N. N. W ; the breeze from N. N. W. blows 
in the afternoon, the others during the night and the fore- 
noon. 

Canary Islands. In the Archipclago of the Canaries, situated near the 
limit of the N. E. trade-winds, the prevailing winds are 
from N. N. W. to N. N. E., shifting by the N., during nearly 
the whole year, but more decidedly from April to October. 
From this last month to February their direction is nearly 
the same. They are, however, interrupted by violent winds 
from the S. E. to S. W., which blow at times seven or eight 
days. It is in December and January that these blows 
usuallj^ take place. With the winds from S. E. to S. W. 
there is much rain. 

The roadsteads of this archipelago are dangerous with 
these winds, and should not be frequented at this period. 



WINDS — CANARY ISLANDS AND ^lADKIlJA. 2!) 

That of tlic (Jraiid ("aiiaiN, tlic iJay of Palnias, is the only 
one wliicli can lie used without (hiiigor in DtH'oniber aii<l 
January, ln'causi' thoio sail can be luatlo with any wind. 

^Vt the Canaries the baiometei" is very sensitive to the 
variations of the atmosphere ; a rapid rise indicates a wiud 
from tlie E., wliik' a fall, on the contrary, is the precursor 
i>f a wind from the W. or S. A\'. Winds from the E. are 
accompanied by hazy or fo![>}iy weather; it clears as soon as 
the wind hauls to the X. When it blows strong- from this 
direction it is called by the islanders la hrisa parda. 

At Madeira the X. E. trade-winds are established to- isbiu.i of Ma- 
ward the middle of Aj)ril, and last until the end of Septem- *'"''" 
ber. Tn October the periodical rains may be expected, 
which usually last fifteen days; they are frequently accom- 
panied by strong winds from the S. E,, which turn to S. W., 
and continue to hanl as far as N. AV., when the weather 
clears. The roadstead of Funchal is very dangerous with 
these winds. 

During the months of November and December there is 
some tine weather, and the wind from the X. E. blows irreg- 
ularly. January ami ]''el)ruary are the two months during 
which violent winds from the S. W. to S. are experienced ; 
it often happens, however, that the X. E. wind prevails dur- 
ing these nujnths. In March the prevailing winds are gen- 
erally from X. W., and at times very strong. During this 
month snow falls upon the mountains of the island. 

April is sometimes bad to the middle of the month, and 
the wiud at times very strong. The weather is generally', 
however, tine from its commencement. In May, June, and 
July the nights are clear and the days clon<ly, and the regu- 
lar laud and sea breezes blow. 

It is in August and during a part of Septem1;)er that the 
harmattan blows, called by the natives the east wind. It 
blows at times from E. for six or nine consecutive days with 
great force upon the coast of Morocco, situated opposite to 
Madeira. 

There are no gusts of wiud in the island from the middle 
of April to the end of September. They should be feared 
in Xovember and December. They commence a few de- 
grees to the E. or W. of S., and passing gradually to the 
W., end at X. W. 



30 



WINDS — COAHT OF PORTUGAL. 



Coast 
rooco. 



Coast of Portii 
ïal. 



On tiie coast of Morocco tlie prevailin.i;' winds are, in the 
fine season, from K. E. to N. W., varying by the IST., and 
blow generally fresh. During* the winter the prevailing 
winds are those from S. W. and S. S. W., varying at times 
to W. S. W., and blowing occasionally with violence. The 
changes of winds from S. E. to S. W. and W. S. W. are rapid 
in the winter, and bring heavy weather. When the wind 
passes to W. l"sr. W. and ^. W. jthe weather becomes good. 

On the coast of Portugal, and in general from Cape Fi- 
nistère to Cape St. Vincent, during ten months of the year 
the winds are from the X., varying from î^. E. to j^. IST. W. 
They blow moderately fresh with fine weather, especially 
dnring the summer. If during the winter there is a gale of 
wind, it will be most frequently from S. to S. W., and at 
times from W. S. W., and blows with great violence. From 
Cape St. Vincent to the Canaries the winds from N. E. to 
S". W., varyiug by the IST., predominate. 

The following table, formed from meteorological observa- 
tions made at Lisbon, will give a good idea of the winds 
which have jDrevailed there for two consecutive years from 
the 1st of October, 1863, to the ejid of September, 1865, 
with the heights of the barometer and thermometer corres- 
ponding to the wind : * 





ÎTiimlier 


Barometer. 


Therm 


ometer. 




Wiiitls. 


of days 










Observations and remarks. 












it lasted. 


Max. 


Mill. 


Max. 


Min. 




Calto 


10 












N 


108 


30.4 


29.7 


76 


36 




N. N. E .... 


36 


30.5 


29.6 


81.5 


40 




N. E 

E.N.E 

E 


no 

■28 
38 


30.5 
30.2 
30.4 


29.6 
29.9 
29.5 


84 
SU 
81 


36 
36 
40 


Tliey are generally clear and 
fre.sli dnring all the year, 
especially from May to 
Spptenibei'. 




E. S. E 


18 


30.2 


29.8 


74 


50 


J 


S.E 


9 


30.1 


29.3 


V 68 


50 


Tliey are fresli and attended 


S.S.E 


•T 


30.2 


.30.1 


67 


47 


with rain or snow from 


s 


38 
45 


30.1 
30.2 


29.6 
29.3 


77 
71 


49 

48 


October to April, especial- 


S. S. W . . - . 


. ly with winds from S. S. E. 
( to W. S. W. Eogs ace fre- 


s. w 


50 


30.4 


29.2 


68 


-48 


quent from October to 


w. s. w - . . 


■2Ô 


30.2 


29.3 


73 


48 


Pebrnary, and generally 


w 


■ -26 


30.2 


29.7 


78 


43 


with S. E. to S. W. winds. 


W.N.W... 


13 


30.1 


29.3 


71 


50 


1 They are fresh with snow, 


N. W 

N. N. W .. 


49 

50 


30.5 
30.3 


29.8 
29.8 


79 
77 


42 

47 


[ showers, and often rain in 
1 summer. In winter fre.sh 
J and showery. 



^ Anuario Hidrotjrajico, 1867. The Gulf of Cadiz and Western Shore of 
ihe Spanish Peninsula ; by Senor Don P. Riiulavets y Tnclnre. 



^VIM)S — COAST OF roUTUCJAL. 31 

Tlio t(nvi;c»iiig- may W ivsolvod into Ihc lollowiiig tabic: 



MimtlisofdlisiTvatiim. 



AViiiils of 

N. K. 
quarter. 



1863. 

I irnibor 

X iiveiiibcr 

1 )i'oeiiibt'r 

If 04. 

■ I.iiiiiiiry 

l\liru:uy 

Marili 

Ai.ril 

May 

I line 

■Inly 

A uiTust 

Sii(teiiil>er 

( tctober 

November 

I>ceember 

186.J. 

.Taiiuary 

February 

Mareb 

April 

May 

Juue 

Inly 

Augu.st 

September 

lu the two years 



Ivi 
■■14 



"VVind.s of 

S. E. 

quarter. 



Days. 



4 


n 


•2 


9 


4 


.-. 




1 




G 




7 



Winds of 

S. W. 

quarter. 



I)caj>< 



AViud.s of 
N. W. 
«luarter. 



Days. 
.5 
1 
2 



6. 
6 
8 
9 
6 
3 
4 
8 
10- 



From tbo foregoiiif;;- we may conclude that winds from the 
northward, or those from between K W. and K E., both 

inclusive, hscve prevailed for 4^30 days. 

From S., or between S. E. and S. AV 134 days. 

1-^rom E., or between E. N. E. and E. S. E 84 days. 

1-^rom W., or between W. X. W. and W. S. W. . . G4 days. 

So that the prevailing winds for the period of two years 
w ere from the IST., with a remarkable preponderance over 
rhe rest, and they were the most lasting in the months from 
^lay to September. 

It must be noted that the observations were made at nine 
a. m., a time when perhaps the wind for the day is not es- 
tablished according to that outside, especially in winter -, 
and that the place of observation was the observatory, 
which, besides being well up the Eiver Tagus, (or, rather, 



32 WINDS — BAY OF BISCAY. 

the Lisbon estuary,) is subject to the prevalence of the 
land wind, which commences at the lower part of the Ta- 
gus. Observations carefully made at the lighthouse on 
the Berliugs will giveus hereafter a better idea of the winds 
which prevail on the western coast of the peninsula. ISTev- 
ertheless, we may be satisfied from the above results that 
the prevailing winds on the coast of Portugal are northerly, 
those of the opposite quarter prevailing from October to 
April, and alternating with those' from W. and K. W. 
jBay of Biscay. The winds in the Bay of Biscay are very variable ; it has 
been observed, however, that in the winter they blow from 
S. W. to ]Sr. W., hauling by the W., and that the latter are 
the most frequent. 

From May to September, sometimes even in December 
and January, wiuds are experienced from E. N. E., E., and 
E. S. E. During the last two months they are fresh and 
durable. From the N. E. they are accompanied by heavy 
showers, and if there is a gale of wind it will be from the E. 
or S. E. and usually violent. 

On the coast of Brittany, the prevailing winds are from 
S. W., varying to W., W. N. W., and N. W. They are of 
long duration, extend far and blow during seven or eight 
months, bringing violent squalls, particularly during the 
winter. 

The winds from W. S. W. to S. W. are most generally ac- 
companied by rain and fog, while those from theN. W. cause 
Tain squalls, but in the interval the sky and horizon are 
clear. If the winds from IST. W. blow moderately they gen- 
erally bring good weather, interrupted in winter by violent 
squalls, which are at times accompanied by hail and thunder. 
On the west coast of France these are commonlj^ named 
storms of the sea. 

More reliance can be placed upon the winds which blow 
from this quarter than from any other. At times they tra- 
verse the whole breadth of the Atlantic, from America to 
Europe. 

During the summer the winds from S. W. prevail, at times 
moderate, at times fresh with heavy weather ; but in this 
season the sky is generally clear. 

I have remarked in traversing the Atlantic in this season 
that with the wind from S. W. and fine weather, if the wind 
hauled to N. W., its strength generally increased, but the 
weather continued good. 



W IM)S — n\\ nl" JUSUAY. .''.."> 

In liio Cluimiel, or in the lîa.v ot" IJiscay, when llic wind sii.i.kii shifts 
dIows Ironi y. u . ni lieavy squalls, cither in winter or in sum- Ar. to n. w. in 
nier, it you perceive that tlie wind and ram merease, that the tny. 
siiualhs become harder and more fréquent lioin the same 
luarter, with a slight tendency to haul, everything- should 
')e in readiness for a su(hlen shift of wind. Ordinarily they 
;)ass abrupth' from 8. AV. to AV. ami often to ];*s^. W. in a 
single rain squall, and the wind is then stronger than before 
;he shift. This mi.nlit be a serious danger for ships liove-to 
•n the port taek, and even ibr those who, running with the 
wind on the quarter or the Avind aft. allowed themselves to 
ue caught without reducing sail. 

At times the sudden shilt of wind from S. W. to N. \\. is 
})receded by a short lull, which should always be mistrusted. 
It is observed in the Bay of Biscay that when the wind 
springs up from a point opposite to the sun it is of short 
•luration, and denotes only ;i momentary derangement of the 
atmosphère. 

Winds from the ^«'. and IS. are not frequent, they prevail winds fiomN. 
irom time to time, but neither over a great extent or for a 
long interval : although tliQj bring sometimes fresh breezes 
and even gusts of wind, those from the S. quickly turn to 
rhe S. E. or S. W.. and those from the X. to the îs\ E. 
and X. W. 

At the entrance of the Channel, although the winds are Entranc! oi the 
very variable, it has been observed that the winds from W. 
are particularly persistent in September, October and No- 
vember, and that they are frequently from the eastward in 
Deceaiber, January and February. 

In the Islands of Great Britain the prevailing winds dilfer I'.Htish i.sIk^. 
but little from those in the Bay of Biscay. It is observed, 
however, that in Scotland the winds from the X. are fre- 
quent, and easterly winds blow particularly from March to 
June. In Ireland and England the winds from S. to S. W. 
are the prevailing winds ; and on the coast of Cornwall it 
has been observed that the wind from the westward blows 
for about nine months of the year. 

On the coast of Holland the prevailing wimls arc from Coa^t of iio'- 
the western quarter, they bring rain and fog. The winds ' 
from S. E., S., and X. W. are rare, but the northerly ai^l 
easterly winds are frequent, and occur during every month 
of the year. They blow during four mouths of the winter, 
bringing dry cold weather, 
.'i A o 



34 WINDS — ARCTIC KEGIONS OF AMERICA. 

Coaet of Kor- Oil the coast of Xorwav tlie prevailing winds are from S. 
W. to S. the entire length of the western coast. There is 
frequently rain with these winds. 

Having reviewed the winds of the coasts of Africa and 
Europe, we will continue by following the basin of the At- 
lantic, and indicate those of the east coast of America. lu 
descending this coast from north to south, we will make but 
a few. remarks on Greenland. 

Greenland. In Greenland there is no periodical wind. From May to 

July the weather is good with variable winds, which seem 
to blow more especially from S. S. W. with considerable 
force; to September the winds are variable. Eains are not 
frequent, storms are rare and of short duration, the most vio- 
lent squalls come from the southern quarter, the coldest 
winds are those from N. E. There is but little information 
concerning Greenland. 

Arctic region jy the following table we give the observations on the 

«I America. "^ ^ 

winds collected by Captain Parry, during his voyage to the 
Arctic regions, to discover a i^assage from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific Ocean. These observations are the more inter- 
esting, as they are successive 5 without interruption from 
July 1819 to Sei^tember 1820, and they accordingly show the 
prevailing winds in these frozen regions for more than a 
year. This table is only a resume of those published in the 
voyage of Captain Parry, who from the mouth of July, 1819, 
to August, 1820, remained between the parallels of 74° and 
75° of N. latitude. 



WINDS — AU("riO KECaONS OF AMKUUÎA. 



35 



'^ 



1 

1 


E. and S. E., fre.sh with rain ; the oilier lireezes light ; much fog : 

snow with wind from the X. 
E., strong breezes and fogs ; X., moderate and cloudy ; S.AV., rain : 

X. X. A\^., fresh; cloudy; fogs. 
AV., strong in squalls; X. X. E., .strong; fogs: snow with wind: 

X., strong ; the other winds moderate. 
X., fresh clear weather ; X. AV., strong and cloudy ; AV., strong ; 

suow and fog; S. AV., strong, thick fog; E., strong; suow. 
N., moderate, fine weather, snow with squalls; S. A\'., fine ; other 

winds moderate. 
E., strong, cloudy ; haze and fogs, with the wind at S. 

S. S. E., .strong, fine weather; X. to X. X. AV., strong or fresh: 

weather clear; much fog in this month. 
X. X. AV., strong; X., fresh, much fog. 
X., strong, weather clear, snow at times; 8., weather dear: AV.. 

strong. 
X. X. AV., strong ; X., light, snow, weather fine ; E., fresh, suow. 
X. to X. X. AV., strong, weatliei^ alternately clear and cloudy; X. 

AV., by squalls. 


•eiq^uBj^ : '-' 


"*'' (N ■ -^ j m CI o 1- 


•mxBQ <^" '^ 




- 


"** »» 


^ n 


•a -x "x j ^ " ^^ 












-b! 


■g:-X ; Ct rH rH 












: -> 


•a -x a 


















a: 


St -v 


'^ 


He» 

lO (ï< r-H 




t - 


a: -s -a 








n rH 1 rt !N r-l 


•as 








- "' -' 


-^ : 


1 r^^ -i^ 

■a -s -s 1 "^ 


• -* 
1-1 f-H * T^ 


1 -*• -w 


■s 


rt <M 






TO 




■^ 


•.vi 'S 'S : : 




















•Ai-s| ^'' = S* « ;:? " 














•Ai. -s -Ai 1 : : : \ \ ^ 








— 




. ,, 1 ^ S' S? Ï?? --T 51 -f' CO O» 




Al-XAl 




-^w 


■v\'sr " *" "* '"' '"' "^ •'^ ««n 


Al X X 


S* :^i^'^int-o>-«^m 


•X 


CI -^ î- o «o in ^H o>j^ ^w 


<i 


1819. 
July 

August 

Seutember 


's 


1 




5 


> 

.a 
i. 




< 


> 

3 





36 



WINDS — ARCTIC REGIONS OF AMERICA. 






'î^ 





p 




&î S 




vf 


























-M 




ç 


':^ 




^ 








w 






? 




a. 








•P 




a 


? 




2 








^ 




^ 






S 








b: 




m 


§ 




!s 








o 


















p 




-jj 






c:: 








ct 






a 


r' 


























c'l 




> 
c 


^ 




y. 














5 












;:: 






^ 




c 








'S 










s: 






aî 


^ 




ci 


— 




^ 






,M 








'^ 












k» 




? 


a- 




ï 






1 








fi 




œ 


;S 






^ 






ce 




■g. 


p 






c 


















r= 






s 




-3 


a: 






^ 




m; 






„. 


p 






0^ 






, 




OJ 


*^ 






c 

c 






^ 


> 


o 






be 




^ ^ 


o 


ip 


'^ 






it 


■c 


" a . 


~ "3 


p 


ci 






Ç 


x 




1 ^ 


O 

a 




S 






izi 




^ 




œ 






•aiquTjBA 


O 


c5 


C 


^ 








œ 






1 ^ 




h; 










•raiBQ 








■^ 








'^ 




















■a -j^ -isT 




o 


c^ 






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sfjsr 




55 








Cl 




S' 


•a '.m; 'a 








- 








-^ 










w 










■a 




S 




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ci 


■a 's 'a 1 


I 3o' 




c 








CI 




















•a-s 


C^ 


C-! 


r 






l-T 




o 


•a -s -s 


" 


1 -^i!:] 1 
00 


(M 






- 




ce 


•s 


<;» 


Tf 


•^ 




"^ 




oc 




















•A -s -s 


CJ 


s^ 1 




"^ 








(M 






1 1 




) 








-fc' 


•i!A.-S 




1 2 








^ 




(M 


•jM 'S -j^ 




" : 


Qi 


(M 








r^ 


îl r-^ 


1 


-tl 






•M. 


^ 


^ 




œ 




■^ 




rH 


■M^ -K -Ml 




^ 


C 


r- 




iH 




t- 














~H^ 




h:ci 


■^■K 


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c 




Tf 









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~n>r 




■M S -K 


CT 


lO 




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Cï 




^ 










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■K 


t- 


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i-H 




























s 
































IT 




>: 














,4 




ci 
















o 


































1' 


s 


=2 

3 




-5 




1 




'3 




c 


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1 




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p^ 




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|2; © 



WINDS — AKCTU; UKcaOAS OF AMEIMCA. 



37 









S ^ T' ^ 3 S 



— 2 o = -: 






i. — _C3 



*== o- "s -s fe 
§2 I I II 






'S^' 



Ï to 



^ 






s O» T! O» SI 



Z. ^ C-j ITj Oi 



. O O M o 

«O W — I » rJ 

~S- ci c: ci ci 



o CO 
ci ci 



Î'I o o o o M CO 



LO œ to 00 M 



-^ 


-T 


r: 


CO 


i^ 


t- 


-< 


0( 


00 


-r 


^ 


o 


o 


•s 


s 


R 


g 


s 


S 


O 


o 


s 


o 


o 

CO 


o 

CO 


o 


'^ 






























■œ 


o 
o 




C5 
O 


Cî 


o 


CO 


to 


(M 


'T 


00 

to 


Q 


-?! 


CO 


° 


— ■ 


O 


oi 


Tt 


ou 


to 


to 


0( 


01 



I I I 



rt 00 f- r? 

c? n- f 

MM 



s o o» -r OO CI 



I M M 



î- I- to to 



Ci Z 









1 


1 




- H 








- + 


a 




1 


> 






















S ^ tH "S >-. 2 >» se 



The two preceding" tables will render unnecessary any 
further observations on the arctic region of America, and 
to complete them as far as possible, w^e give the following- 
table of observations, made also by Captain Parry during 
his third voyage to discover the Northwest Passage. These 
observations embrace a period of sixteen months, from 
June 1824 to September 1825. 



38 



WINDS — ARCTIC BEGaONS OF AMEEICA. 



^ 



^ -3 



"A j3 
n <£ 
.5 ^ 



^ T 

« y. 



^ = 



o tM ra |-j f- 



•a "^ :S 






;d fe -ri es Tr, TV: 



o .^ 



r: -^ r/5 b 



« p: 



â^ês^^tï^s 



CD 


œ 




o 


S 
o 


^ 


l'" 


«>■ 


o 


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N 


1=^ 


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^ ^ o 6 



rt CJ O! n 



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WINDS — ('ANy\I)A. 



:îi> 



It can Itc coiicIiuIimI iVoiii all tlicsc ohseiN at ions that in 
the arctic ici^ions the winds arc very variable, an<l follow no 
rule, and that in j^cneial they are inoderate, even in all 
seasons of the year. 

In ]Iudsou's Bay it has been observed that from the month iiiui^ons B*y. 
of October to Mny the prevailin,c: winds are those from X. 
to X. W., and that from Jnne to October they are those 
from the S. E. to E. In this bay heavy gales from the N. 
are experienced ; they are most frequent in the spring and 
autumn.* 

.Vccording to sonH> authors the winds in Canada blow Caiiaaa. 
regularly from the northern quarter during the five mouths 
of winter ; according to others the winds from X. E. and S. 
W. ])revail alternately, the first at the end of the autumn and 
during the winter, the second during the remaiuder of the 
year. From December to April the weather is, iu general, 
serene. The occasional winds from X. W., which spring up 
during the season, are colder than those from X. E., and 
they only occur during the season of ice. These do not ap- 
pear iu the seas of this locality, excepting about the mouth 
of March ; they increase in June, and from that time dimin- 
ish successively.* 

The following table is a resume of the winds observed 
durino- 183-1 in Lower Canada :t 



Months. 


Winds. 


Remark.s ou the weather. 




W.X. W 






W^.toE.K.E 

W. toE 


Much snow. 


March 








Variable with the wiuds. 


Mav 


...do 




June . . 


. do 


Do. 


July 


....do 


Do. 


August . 


do 


Do. 




....do 




( )ctober 


E.N.E 

S.S.E 

W.X.W 








December 


Variable. 







On the east and south coast of the Island of Xewfound- Xf^v-foundiand. 
land the most frequeut winds are those from the southern 
<iuarter, from the mouth of May to the mouth of October. 



" Romme, p. 63 ; Table of winds, &c. 

t Montgomery Martin's Historii of Br HI sh Colon h/s. 



40 WINDS — GULF OF ST. LAWIIENCE. 

These winds are Aery variable, aud, in general, moderate 
during this period. There are, however, occasionally heavy 
sqnalls from the S. E,, Avith rain and fog, whifh is particu- 
larly frequent in July nnd August. 

The winds from IST. W., which blow from time to time, are 
dry and cold, and almost always bring a clear sky. In the 
month of October these winds become A'ioleut. There are 
frequently in the localities of Newfoundland winds from S. 
W., very variable in force at this season of the yenr. 
sSw^no^:^"' I^^ *^6 ^^^1* ^"^^ Elver St. Lawrence,* during the navigable 
season, the prevailing Avinds enter directly into the gulf and- 
river, following the direction of the chains of uiountains 
Avhicli form the sides of the great Aalley through which it 
runs. Thus the winds S. E. in the gulf become E. S. E. be- 
tween Anticosti and the south coast; E. N. E. aboAC the 
Point de Monts, and IsT. E. beyond Green Island. 

The Avinds from W. do not api)ear to folloAV so exactly 
the .course of the high land, except on the south coast, where 
those from W. S. W^ become at Bic Island W., W. N. W., and 
î^. W. in descending the south coast, Avhich is high and in 
form of a curA^e ; they then turn to N. N. W. at Cape Gaspe. 

The AA^nds above mentioned blow often strong during 
three or four days ; those from W. being nearly always ac- 
companied AA'ith clear and fine Aveather, those from the E. 
being as often cold and foggy. 

In the spring the easterly winds prcA'ail, bloAving at times 
without interruption many Aveeks. As the summer ap- 
proaches the westerly winds become more frequent ; those 
from S. W. may be regarded as the ])revailing winds during 
the summer in the gulf and riA'cr. 

Winds from S., light and variable, blow occasionally in 
this season ; from the ?s^. they are rare at this period, thougli 
they do occur. 

The strong winds from the ]S^., if they bloAv at all before 
September, only continue for a few hours, Avhen the Avind 
goes to the eastward ; succeeded l)y calm it is the foreranner 
of a strong wind. They haul generally to the S. W. 

The wind from N. W. is dry, and AA^hen it blows the sky 
is clear and Avithout clouds. After the autumnal equinox 
the winds to the N. and W. become more common; they 
are often strong, and blow a long time from the same direc- 
tion. In the months of October and NoA'ember the.Avind 

•■ Bayfield. 



\vi>;i)s — (a'LF OF SI'. i.AwitENOT-:. 41 

Iroiii N. \\'. is lVcM|U<'iitl.v vi(>UMit, iu h(';i\ y siiualls, l>iiii^iii<;- 
rain, liail, snow, and lioa\'.v tVosts, 

S(inalls arc frocinont in July and Anj^iist, but seldom last 
more than one or two hours; tlie wind accoui[)anyin<j;' them 
is, in u'eneral, iustantaueoiis and violent, especially iu the 
\ieiiiity of a mountainous part ol' the coast; sail shoul<l be 
((uickly reduced beion' their approach. 

The violent winds very seldom chop round from one i>oint 
of the compass to the point directly opposite, or nearly so. 
In general they moderate jj;radually, and it becomes calm-, 
then they are replaced by a wiud from an oi)posite direction. 
It sometimes happens that they shift their direction several 
})oiuts. The winds from N. W. rarely, or rather never, shift 
by the N. to I^. E., E. and S. E,, but often turn gradually to 
the S. W. in moderating. The winds from S. W. A^ary very 
seldom from that direction to N. W., N., and E., but some- 
times by the S. to S. E. and E. The vvinds from E. diminish 
gradually to a calm, and are replaced by the wiud from an 
opposite direction. 

In the tine weather of the summer the W. winds are a 
fresh top-gallant breeze ; it moderates often in the evening 
and becomes calm during the night; the next morning it 
springs up again from the same point. It is only under 
these circumstances that a land breeze is found near the 
northern shore ; the same has been observed on the south- 
ern shore, but it is not so plainly defined as on the northern ; 
the land breeze does not extend far from the land either 
on the one or the other. Occasionally about sunrise the 
land breeze of the north shore is found to extend nearly to 
the southern shore, while the land breeze of the southern 
shore seldom extends live or six miles into the offing. 

Under the same circumstances, with tine weather and the 
wind W. dying away after sunset, a breeze from S. W. from 
the land often blow s into the offing from the north shore of 
Anticosti; it continues during the night and into the morn- 
ing. If, however, the weather is undecided and the wiud 
does not die away at sundown, the shore should not be ap- 
proached during the night with the expectation of a land 
breeze, for this would, in general, be more detrimental than 
useful. 

Such is the ordinary course of the winds in the CJulf of 
St. Lawrence, and Avith the ordiruiry weather violent winds 
do not often occur from Mav to October, though fresh 



Barometov. 



42 WIND« — CtULF of ST. LAWRENCE. 

breezes are common. There are, however, exceptionally, 
years when these winds take the character of tempests, and 
squalls of extreme violence succeed each other rapidly and 
at very short intervals. 

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bayiield mentions that, dur- 
ing the navigable season, the barometer varies from 29 to 
30.5 inches ; that from its variations follow with remarka- 
ble regularity the changes of the wind and weather. The 
movement of the column of mercury is greater and more 
frequent than in lower latitudes, and a sudden variation, 
which in other climates would be alarming, may take place 
in the gulf without being followed by a change of wind or 
weather. îs'evertheless the mariner should always follow 
closelj^the barometer and observe its slightest fluctuations ; 
this study alone can make him capable of appreciating the 
decisive indications of the mercury, which rarely deceive. 

The following remarks apply to decided Aariations of the 
barometer, which generally indicate a storm or change in 
the direction of the wind and weather, a change, the fore- 
knowledge of which is of the greatest importance to the 
seamen and to the security of the ship which he commands. 

After a series of westerly winds with fine weather, wlien 
the barometer has risen as high as possible, that is to say, a 
little above 30.5, if it commences to fall a little, a wind 
from the E. should be expected. If to this showing of the 
barometer the following circumstances are added, a warm 
spell, a greyish atmosphere during the day, with an abund- 
ant -dew at night and the stars sparkling, or an aurora bore- 
alis, the approach of an E. wind is in a great measure 
certain. If the land is in sight and appears deformed by 
the terrestrial refraction, if the vessels in sight are drawn 
out of proportion by the mirage or exhibit two or three 
images, these phenomena would confirm positively the 
change of weather indicated by the barometer. Probably 
the wind from E. will be light at first, witli a clear sky, but 
this only continues for a few hours. If the barometer con- 
tinues to fall, the wind will soon increase gradually and the 
sky cloud by degrees until it is entirely covered. The rain 
and fog follow and will last wdth the E. wind, with very 
little intermission, until dispersed by a wind from an oppo- 
site direction. 

If the fall of the barometer, during an easterly wind, is 
very slow, the wind probably will last, and will not be very 



^\ INDS — (iUl.l' OF ST. I.AWUKNCK. 4;{ 

xioliMit. 11". Oil tlic contraiy, tlu' l;ill ol' the haiouiL'tei' is 
r:i])i(l. it will last luit a short time, l»iit with coiisiderablo. 
viohMicc. Ill the fast' wliorc the iiicicuiy falls to about !*!> 
iiK'lu's. Mil iiiiiiuMliato change is almost ceitaiii, and the wind 
will, ill iioiioral, t'oiiie from the X. W. ; the force of tliis 
w iiid will be in i)roi)ortioii to the fall of the barometer and 
that of the K. wind whieh preceded it. There is rarely, 
ill this ease, au interval of a few hours between one of these 
w iiids and the other. The wind from E. fails gradnally and 
it falls calm; in a few hours after, or even at times much 
([uicker, the wind commences from X. W., and for some time 
a heavy sea is encountered, caused by the preceding wind. 
The barometer commences sometimes to rise in the interval 
of calm which precedes the wind from K. W.; at others it 
does not rise until the commencement of this wind; then the 
weather becomes nearly clear in a few- hours, sometimes im- 
mediately. The force of the iST. W. wind is generally greatest 
immediately after its commencement, and decreases as the 
barometer rises, hauling gradually to the W. and S. W. 
. It is worthy of remark that the circumstances above 
mentioned are reproduced exactly, but inversely, when the 
wind is to come from the E. This wind commences gen- 
erally with clear weather and the barometer high ; light at 
hrst from S. to S. E., it increases gradually in proportion as 
it haids to the E., with a continuous fall of the barometer. 

To return to the wind from the AV., we would state that 
after it has hauled to S. AV., if it becomes moderate and the 
barometer remains stationary at a moderate height, good 
weather can be expected. If it remains at a great height, 
but undecided, fluctuating between certain limits, equally 
variable weather may be expected. If, however, it rises 
quickly to a great height, a repetition of the E. wind 
may l)e expected. There are seasons Avhen it may be said 
that the mercury hardly rises with one wind, before it com- 
mences to fall to another, and these disturbances of bad 
augury continue for several months. At other seasons 
there is hardly a breeze during the whole summer, to which 
it is necessary to double-reef the top-sails. In reality there 
are so great diflerences in the weather, according to the 
seasons, that it is very diftienlt to state any fact which is 
not subject to many exceptions. There is, nevertheless, a 
well-determined accordance which exists nearlv in every 



44 AVINDS — «ITLF OF ST. LAWKENCE. 

case betAveen tbe indications of the barometer and tlie vari- 
ations of the winds and weather. 

The first case is tlie ver^^ common one that we have indi- 
cated, the coincidence of a falling barometer Avith a wind 
from E., accompanied with humidity and fog, and replaced 
by a strong wind from the opposite quarter, coinciding AA'itli 
a rising of the barometer. A second case, which is more 
rare in ordinary seasons, (except in the spring or at the 
commencement of summer,) is that of a wind from E. blow- 
ing with a rising barometer, which, though not commenc- 
ing Avith clear weather during its first few hours, brings 
almost always a clear .sky, and finishing with fine weather. 
A third case can be regarded as sure ; it is when the barom- 
eter falls suddenly and considerably, the Avind may at all 
times be expected from the N., and probably a A^ery A'io- 
lent gust from the jST, W. It does not follow that this gust 
should be immediate, for it may be i)receded by a strong 
squall from the S. W. of some hours' duration, during 
which the barometer seldom rises, but almost always con- 
tinues to fall. Then Avhen the wind from S. W. ceases, 
the wind from X. or K. W. follows immediately and the 
barometer rises. 

Finally, it is seen, on the one side, that a considerable 
fall of the barometer may take place without being followed 
by a violent wind, and, on the other, that a breeze of 
considerable force may bloAV Avithout its being indicated by 
this instrument ; however, this ncA'er takes i^lace in a sud- 
den gust of wind. It should be here obserA'ed, that in this 
climate and under the circumstances mentioned aboA^e, the 
barometer being Aery high indicates a wind from the E. 

It is remarkable that in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the 
barometer being a ery high may be considered as foretelling 
the damp, foggy Aveather, which accompanies its fall, Avhile 
the barometer being A-ery low announces equally dry 
Aveather, and this accompanies its rise. The barometer is, 
then, in the navigation of this gulf, a most useful instru- 
ment 5 for, by observing constantly its state and its A-aria- 
tions, and comparing them with the wind and weather 
Avhich precedes them, as also Avith the apijearance of the sky, 
the change of the Avind and weather can be foreseen with 
a certain degree of confidence, and in many cases prevent 
being surprised near a lee shore Avithout a sure anchorage. 
These variations of the barometer can be equally utilized in 



\V1M)S — SAMLK ISLAND. 45 

tiikiiiji' siu-li ;i rourse as would place a sliip in a positicui to 
benefit by the eoinino- (>liau<;e. 

The climate of Sable Island seems to l)e jiveatly under ciimaio of Sa- 
!he intluence of the (Juif Stream, from which it is distant 
only seventy miles. 

The winds blowing from its direction sixni melt the snow 
which nmy fall upon this island during- the Avintcr. Tiiese 
winds, coming from a quarter comparatively warm, bring 
with them much luimidity ami are always accompanied by 
I hick fogs. 

Tiie winds from the southern (piarters generally prevail winds irom s. 
during the summer months, and are interrupted by winds 
from the N. 

AVitli the winds from the southward the barometer rarely 
rises; but if while they blow, it falls with rapidity there is 
wind and rain. If the fall is considerable, after the middle 
of the month of August, a blow may be expected. 

The winds between X. and E. prevail during the spring ^^ winds tn>m n. 
and the beginning of autumn. They are often accompa- 
nied by tine weather and a higli barometer, particularly when 
nearly from IST. In autumn and winter the wiiuls from the 
eastward generally bring bad weather and a low barometer. 

Some of the most violent storms experienced in this is- 
land have been from this quarter, ami they are generally 
followed, after the barometer has attained its lowest point, 
by a sudden gust of wind from the N. W., equally violent, 
bringing always clear weather, accompanied by a, rise of 
barometer. 

The winds from E., as those from S., bring fog. The last 
mentioned winds are less frequent towards the end of the 
summer, when the westerly winds and clear weather be- 
come proportionately less rare. 

It is the fog much more than the current which renders 
Sable Island so dangerous; it lasts for several days and 
idghts without interruption, with the wind from E. or S., 
and prevails during the summer. 

The winds from X. and W. are frequent in the autumn 
and winter; they bring, most always, clear weather; they 
are Aiolent and very cold in the winter.* 

The following table is an abstract of observations upon NovaScAtia. 
the winds, made at Halifax, situated on the southeast coast 
of ISoxd Scotia.t 

* Bayfiel<l. t MontiioiiKny Martin's Histori/ of the British Colonicfi. 



46 



WINDS — NEW BRUNSWICK. 

Vbserratiom a^on the winds, made at HaUfax. 



Months. 

January 

Pelirnary 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July , 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 



Wiads. 



N., S., anclW 

N. "W., and variable... 

N. W. and S. W 

W 

jS^. and W 

W., N., and îf.W 

"W"., îf., and S., variable 

"W. and S., variable 

]Sr. W. and S., variable. 
S.W., N., and N.W . . . . 

W. andS. \V - 

X W. andN.E 



Eemarlis on the weather. 



Clear ; rain ; snow. 
Clear ; rain ; cloudy. 
Clear ; cloudy ; rain. 

Do. 
Clear ; rain at intervals. 

Do. 
Clear; fog. 
Clear ; cloudy ; a little rain ; foj; 

Do. 
Clear. 

Clear ; rain and fog. 
Clear ; rain. 



wiclt. 



Brnn,<- In î^ew IJriiiiswick the followiug observations were made 
at Fredericton, the capital of this colony.* 



Observations u])o 


H the ivinds, 


made at Fredericton. 






Months. 


M 


■A 


^ 


'À 


> 


03 


1 


bi) 

o 


! 

1 

o 
a 
m 




4 
2 

23 
13 
20 
19 
20 
17 
17 
14 
11 


4 

4 
1 
1 

5 


7 

4 

5 

11 

7 
10 

7 

9 
10 

8 

9 


6 

2 


14 
16 
1 
.3 
3 


24 
23 
22 
22 
18 
15 
18 
23 
17 
22 
15 
26 


2 
1 

2 
7 
8 
6 
3 
3 
5 
7 
8' 


1 
2 

5 

9 

10 

5 
8 
2 
3 
2 


4 




4 


March 






1 










July 


2 
4 

■ 2 

14 
14 


2 
1 
1 
9 

8 








September 

October 

November 


4 




3 




1 




Total 


159 


17 


87 


44 


58 


245 


52 


47 


21 



East <j()ast of 
North America. 



Tliere have not been found on the east coast of Korth 
America any constant winds or those blowing with regu- 
larity. The region of the trade-winds extends further to 
the north on this coast than upon the corresponding coast 
of Africa, and these winds at times extend as far as the 
l)arallel of Bermuda and even to that of 32° IST. As they 
approach the coast they blow the more directly from the 
E. On the coast of that part of America which com- 
prises the United States the most frequent winds are those 
'' Sir James MacGregor. 



"WINDS — EAST ("OAST OF NOUTIl AMi:i;i(A. 17 

lioiii N. W. and S. E. Generally in winter the winds blow 
from N. ^V. and are mostly dry. The winds Irom E., E. !S. 
10., and S. 1']. briiii;- rain, and they are sometimes veiy str<»n<;' 
from the last direction. 

To the south of Newfonndland sadden and violent s<iualls 
of wiiul are very freqnent, which, after blowing»' stronj;- from 
t)ne direction, choj) round suddenly and blow with c(iual vio- 
lence from the opposite direction. 

The winds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are not subject to 
so sudden variations as they are to the eastward of Breton 
Island. The weather to the south of the Magdalene Is- 
lands, between there and Prince Edward Island, is gen- 
erally clearer than to the north. 

On the coast of South Carolina, when the winds blow s..uti.(M..piiii;i. 
strong from N. E. without rain, it lasts ordinarily from 
about three to four days; but if it rains Avith this wind it 
generally hauls to the E., E. S. E., and S. E. These last 
blow directly on the coast and it is seldom that they are 
without rain or that they are of long duration; six, eight, 
or ten hours after they are tirst felt the sky is overcast and 
ai little after the rain falls. If the rain is very abundant 
and the wind strong it may be expected to haul and be- 
come fixed at î^. W. ; it holds at this point for twenty or 
thirty hours, blowing with violence. 

The winds from N. W. are always accompanied by clear \vii,.is tv.,i>. x. 
weather; they are at times violent aiul seldom last more 
than thirty hours. The most durable winds are those from 
S. S. ^Y., variable to W. jST. W., and those from N., varying 
to E. N. E. The weather is sutBciently settled with the 
wind from these directions. 

During the summer squalls are frequent on this coast ; sijuiiiis. 
they come always from IN". E., and are at times so violent 
that no sail cau withstand them ; they burst with so much 
force and rapidity that it requires the greatest precaii- 
tiou to escape their violence. They are first announced by 
a very black (;loud, the weather heavy and suttbcating and 
winds light and variable. On the first appearance of these 
squalls sail should be taken in and furled. In general the 
squall rises so rapidly as to allow scarcely time to stow all 
the sails. 

From the 1st of Xovend^er to the end of February the \iciiiit,v of st. 
gusts of wind are generally A^ery strong in the vicinity of' """" "" ' 
the coast near St. Augustine: the winds from X. iST. E. to 



48 



WINDS — ISLAND OF BERMUDA. 



lalanrt of Ber 
muda. 



S. S. E., whatever be their direction, if from the eastward, 
come on rapidly, in this season, with all the force of violent 
squalls, without any indication. 

When the wind blows against the direction, of the sim, 
accompanied by a slight rain, the sea commences to rise 
before the wind is felt. It is then necessary to be prepared 
for a blow, which will last generally from fifty to sixt^' 
liours. If near the land all sail possible shonld be carried 
in order to get well off shore before the squall is in full 
force, and then heave to. 

It must be recollected besides, that the flood running to 
the S. will not be available outside of soundings of twelve 
fathoms, and that there the counter-cnrrent of the Gulf 
Stream is met running to the S. nutil in forty -five fathoms, 
which is about forty-five miles from the land ; then you will 
meet the Gulf Stream coming from the Bahama Channel, 
and increase very rapidlj'^ the depth of the soundings. 

The Islands of Bermuda are remarkable for the richness of 
their vegetable productions -, for the salubrity of the climate, 
which is acceptable to Europeans, which may be regarded as 
one perpetual summer. 

The following table* gives a general idea of the climate, 
of the temperature and the prevailing winds of these is- 
lands. It is the mean of observations made during a num- 
ber of years. 



Months. 


Mean 
temper- 
ature. 


Prevailing winds. 


Eemark.s. 




o 

66 
63 
63 
76 
80 
86 
79 
79 
79 
79 
71 
66 


N.W - 

oST. E 


Cold ; frequent rain. 
Do. 


Febrnaiv 


Marcli 


N. W. by W 

S E 


Milder; fine breezes. 
Warm ; rain scLualls. 
Oppressive beat ; tbuiidei-. 




S.S.E 

s. W^ 






E 






S. E . 


Oppressive beat; heavy showers. 
Hot ; frequent showers. 




S.W.by W 

N.E 

l^.W 

N.E 






Cold ; heavy rains. 









From this table it is seen that the coldest months are 
those of December, January, February, and March, when 
the minimum of the temperature is 50^ ; the warmest month 

* Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies, vol. ii, p. 396. 



^VINDS— ISLAM) OF BEimiDA. 49 

is .Inuo, and the inaxinuim 88 ; that tlic winds liom tlic 
southward, varyino- from S. E. to S. W., jtrovail dnrint;- tlu' 
suinnuT, ami the winds iVcnn the in»rtli\vai(l, variable from 
X. W. to X. E. prevail daring the \vint<'r. A\'inds blowing 
directly from N. or S. are rare. 

Storms and temi)ests are frecinent in this island. Sitnated storms an 
as it is at the variable limits of the N. E. trade-winds and 
of the pn'vailing winds of the temperate zone, and also in 
the neighborhood of the Gulf Stream, scarcely a fall liasses 
witht>ut storms more or less violent. To the north of the 
island sudden storms and squalls are the most frequent. 
1 )uring the autumn and winter the sea is most always heavy, 
and violent Avinds from IST. W. frequently occur, bringing 
fog and a cloudy sky. 

The tempests at the Bermudas are sudden and violeut, 
especially during the winter. Toward the evening the 
whole horizon is obscured by heavy black clouds ; thunder 
and lightning are the precursors of the wind which rises 
very rapidly. When it commences to blow it varies con- 
tinually, with violent squalls at intervals of from twenty to 
thirty minutes, during which intervals it is calm; the sea 
becomes very high and dangerous for small vessels from its 
irregularity. Under these circumstances it is best to furl 
the sails and run before it.* It is remarked, that in the vi- 
cinity of the Bermudas there is often a conflict between the 
wiiuls, and they are very variable. 

In the spring the wind blows frequently from S. E. to S. 
W., varying to N. W. In the south of the group the 
weather is generally mild and the sea smooth. 

When the ]S". E. trade-wind extends to the north of the 
parallel of 30° N., the winds from N. W., which are expe- 
rienced to the north of these islands, become more impetuous ; 
while between the parallels of 28° and 30° N. latitude the 
sea is smoother, the w inds variable and exempt from storms. 

Cape Hatteras is celebrated for the continual bad weather cape natteras, 
encountered there during the greater part of the year. 

On the coast of the United States, says Franklin, storms 
occur from the northeastward, which commence in the 
southwest portion of the United States, in Georgia, and 
from thence pass successively over the States in their course 

* Lieut. Evans. This is uot our advice. We are of opinion that, as in 
hurricanes, it is jn-oper to heave-to and observe the variations of the 
wind, to maneuver as described in the Appendix. 
4 A O 



50 WINDS — GULF OF MEXICO. 

north, reaching- at times as far as Newfoundland. These 
winds are violent and last sometimes two or three days j 
they are accompanied by rain with heavy clouds. 
Gulf of Mexico. In the interior of the Gulf of Mexico the trades are the 
prevailing winds, and in proportion to the force of the local 
winds they approach nearer or are further removed from the 
coasts.* 
Gales from From the month of October to the month of March, gales 
from the î^. occur. They are very violent and at times 
accompanied by rain ; they are encountered as far as the 
Bahama Channel. These northerly gales in the Gulf of 
Mexico are generally announced by a great diminution of 
the swelling of the sea upon the shores of the Bay of Cam- 
pechy, by a great humidity of the atmosphere, and by a 
black cloud seen in the northwest in the morning and even- 
ing-, from 9° to 10° above the horizon, for two or three days. 
Sometimes before the gust, lightning in the northwest and 
northeast, and white threads called Jils de la vierge, are 
seen during* the day in the rigging. These, as also the 
phosphorescence of the sea, are indications of a coming; 
norther. 

The distinctness with which the high land is seen, and 
the girdle of white clouds around the mountains of San 
Martin to the southward of Vera Cruz, are also certain signs 
of a norther. 

The barometer indicates, in the great number of cases 
most decidedly, these gales from the N. by its falling be- 
fore the gust comes, and a few minutes before it bursts the 
column of mercury rises slowly. This is always the case. 

The wind rises in the S., weak at first ; it then shifts round 
the compass to the westward until it arrives at IST. jST. W., 
when it blows with violence. These blows, which are very 
dangerous in the Gulf of Mexico, generally last two or three 
days. The wind being at K. W., if the black cloud men- 
tioned disappears, the blow will not continue long, and the 
wind blowing only a stiff breeze returns to the E., and if it 
passes to ]Si . E. it will moderate.t 

At other times, the weather being perfectly good, with 
a light breeze, when the stars sparkle and are more bril- 
liant than usual, when the night is moist, the wind comes 

* For details see Le Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles. 
t From Le Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, by Captain 
De Kerliallet. 



WFNDS — GULF OF :\IKXI('0. 51 

suddenly from the X. witliout other indication, the noise 
of the sea which it raises precedinj;' the wind but a few 
minutes. Tlu> northerly gales which commence thus are 
\ery danu'erons, as they are in general very violent. They 
are less enduring than the others, and in them the barom- 
eter varies but little. At Vera Cruz at this season the mer- 
cury is never higher than 30.G inches, and does not descend 
below liO.S inches, an oscillation of 0.8 inches ; the mean 
lieight of the barometer is 30.1 inches. In these blows there 
is frecjuently much rain, and the weather is hazy. They 
always get up a heavy sea. 

The winds from X., called nortes by the Mexicans, prevail Dry season. 
in the Gulf of Mexico from the middle of September to the 
middle of March. This is the dry season. In September 
and October these winds are not usually strong, and if not 
felt at this season the prevailing winds are interrupted by 
squalls of wind and rain. In November they are well es- 
tablished, are fresh, and continue during December, Jan- 
uary and February. In March and even in April when they 
blow they are clear, and are then more ^'iolent during the 
first day than when they blow in the preceding months ; 
they haul also less to the N. ^\. Occasional gusts from the 
X. occur in the months of June, July and August. The 
strongest are called huesos coJoraflos, the more moderate 
chocoJateros. 

The wet season in the Gulf of Mexico is from March to wet season, or 
Septeml)er. From the latter part of March and during the trad^winds. 
month of April the trade-winds, interrupted from time to 
time by the winds from the X., blow from the E. S. E., 
sometimes with a clear sky, at others cloudy, and inclining 
to the S. E.J they last then all the night. From the month 
of July to October, frequent and strong gusts are expe- 
rienced, accompanied by thunder, lightning, and heavy 
rains. Those which come from the E. are the most violent, 
but have the shortest duration.* 

When the storm ceases the sky is generally hazy, with a 
moderately fresh breeze. If it lights up to the southeast it 
is ordinarily an indication of the end of the bad weather. 
These storms generally last from twelve to twenty-four 
hours when the weather becomes fine, with the wind E. S- 
E. to S. E. 



* Bernardo de Oria, Derrolero de las AntiUas. Manuel de. la Xarigation 
dans le Mer des Antilles, cj-c, Part III, by Captaiu De Kevhallet. 



WINDS— GULF OF MEXICO. 



' Season of liur- 
ïlcanes. 



During tlie season of the trade-winds the variation of the 
barometer is 0.45 inch, the maximum being 30.4 inches, the 
minimum 29.95 inches. In June the thermometer rises to 
87°, and does not descend below 83.°5. In December the 
maximum is 80°.6, the minimum 66°.o. 

The period of storms in the Gulf of Mexico, as in the 
West Indies, is principally from August to October, and the 
rainy season in these localities, as the corresponding season 
on the coast of Africa, commences when the sun passes to 
the zenith of the place in going north, and terminates when 
it repasses the zenith of the same place in going south. 
This is called the winter season. 

The following table is taken from a memoir by Admiral 
Bérard, together with the accompanying remarks:* 



Dry season or season of iJie trade-winds. 





Winds from mid- 
night to noon. 


Winds from noon 
to midnight. 


Remarks on weather and winds. 


Mouth. 


From midnight 
to noon. 


From noon to 
midnight. 


April 

May . . 


S.S.W., S.S.E., S. 

E., E.S.E. 
S., S.S.E., E.S.E . 

S. S. E. to S. E 

S. to S. S. E., W. liT. 

W. to N. W. 
S.W.toW. S.W., 

W.N.W.toN.W. 
S. W., W., W. N. 

W., N. W. 


E. S. E., E. N". E., 

K-.N.E.,N".N.W. 
E. S. E., E. N. E . . . 
E. S. E., E. K. E . . . 
E. S. E., E. K E., 

N. K. E. 
E.S.E. to E.,N.E., 

ISr.E.toKN.E. 
K". E. to jST. ÎT. E., 

N. to N. isr. w. 


Light 

Light ... 


Light breezes. 


June 

July 


Light 

Light 


Moderate. 


Light 




September . 


Light 


Variable. 



Dry season or season of northers. 



October. 


W. N. w., ]sr. N. 
w., îf. isr. E. 


X. W., K. X. W., 

N. X. E. 


Fresh 










ÏTovember . 


ÎT. W., N. K". W . . . 


X.X.W., X., 


Fresh; period 
of squalls. 


Fresh. 


December.. 


N. W., ]^. N. W . . . 


X^.W., N.X.W., X. 


Xearly always 
fresh. 


&usts of wind. 


Januarj"^ . . . 


W. N. W., N.W., 


X., X.X.E 


Fresh 


Period of 




îf. N. W. 






squalls. 


February . . 


N. N. W., M"., N. 


X.X. W.,X.N.E.. 


Fresh 


Fresh. 




N".W. 








March 


N.W., N.N.W---. 


X., X. X. E., X. E . 


Moderate 


Fine breezes. 



^Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, t^"c., part iii, by Captaiii 
De Kerb all et. 



■^V]>;]1S — OULF OF MEXICO. a,» 

Dmiiii;- the iiionth of April tlie woatlier is very fine; tlic^wet season- 
most gviioial winds aro those wliieh vary from K. S. E. to 
B. N. E. and to N. X. 1- In tlie mornini;- the wind is fre- 
(piently from X. W., variable to S. S. E. and E., and in the 
afternoon these winds haul to the E. N. E. 

AVhen the wind commences at N. in the moining, it blows 
from X. X. W.; in the afternoon it hauls to the N. X. E. and 
]']. X\ E. ; in the night it is often calm from 10 p. m. to i' a. m. 

During this month there are at times appearances of 
winds from the X"^. 

The weather is fine during the nunith of 3[ay. The pre- ^«y- 
\ailing winds are those from the E. In the morning they are 
from S., variable to the S. S. E. and E. S. E. : in the after- 
noon from E. S. E. to E. X. E., and even to X. E. It is 
often calm during tlie night ; the wind from E. is light in 
the morning, fresher towanls noon, and is sometimes very 
fresh in the afternoon, in which case it is observed that it 
lasts during the night. Towards the end of his month it 
happens that the wind blows from the E. several days in 
succession without interrujition. 

During the month of Jnne the winds from eastward pre- June. 
dominate; in the morning they are from the S. S. E. to S. 
E., sometimes at W. X. W. to the X". W. or X^. X. W., and 
afternoon they haul to the eastward and become fixed be- 
tween E. S. E. and E. X^. E. It is oidy from this quarter 
that they become fresh; they last at times twenty-four 
hours without interruption ; at others they are interrupted 
by calms. 

In this month there are frequent storms; they rarely take 
place on the sea, but generally burst on the land. There is 
also over the land very frequent and vivid lightning. 

Dnring the month of July, in the gulf, and at large, the July. 
trade-winds blovr without interruption; they are only va- 
riable in their force. 

The excessive heat of this month, added to the influence 
that the neighboring coast exerts on the direction of the 
winds, occasions many s(|nalls ; there is one nearly every 
day, and a great number burst at sea. They make their 
appearance to the S. E., the S., the S. W., and X. W. Some 
come from theE. These storms are called tornadoes. 

Dnring the month of August, near the coasts, the regu- August. 
lar land and] sea breezes prevail ; the land breeze usually 
commences between llh. p. m. and midnight, sometimes 



54 WINDS — GULF OF MEXIOO. 

even after uiidnight, and lasts uutil lOli. iu the morn- 
iug. Au interval of calm succeeds this breeze, and toAvard 
uoou, sometimes at 11 a. m., the sea breeze commences and 
blows uutil llh. iu the evening or midnight. It is gen- 
* erally followed by an interval of calm. Sometimes the sea 
breeze blows for twenty -four hours without interruption. 

In this month the sky is almost always overcast. While 
the sea breeze blows clouds and squalls form over the high 
land ; on the other hand they form at sea when the breeze 
blows from the land. 

The month of August is that in which the most rain 
falls, and in which storms are the most frequent. The winds 
are very variable, and Avhen they go to the IST. are light. 
There are at times squalls and tornadoes, in which the wind 
is very strong from the E., but they are of short duration. 
The squalls are accompanied by torrents of rain and great 
electricity of the atmosphere. 

Septsmber. lu the moutli of September the land and sea breezes ex- 

ist near the coast. In this month the change of season 
takes place, sometimes hurricanes occur of extraordinary 
violence, and following these, heavy bores. The winds most 
frequent in the month of September are those from IST. IsT. 
E. to N. IsT. W., at times moderate, occasionally quite fresh. 

Dry season. Iu the mouth of Octobcr the iwevailing winds are from 

October. *" 

W. N. W., N. W., and JST. N. W., very rarely interrupted by 
breezes from E. S. E. to E. K. E. , these winds are often fresh. 
In the month of October there are frequently blows from 
the N. 
November to Iu the mouths from I^ovember to Februarv, inclusive, 

February. "- ' .' 

there are, at intervals, violent winds from the N. The pre- 
vailing winds are variable from îfi to W. N. W. ; when they 
commence they are strong and the sky is overcast. As soon 
as they haul to theE. or E. S. E., the weather becomes good. 
These winds have never a long duration, and in general never 
blow longer than live or six days in succession. The winds 
from the IsT. are fresh and sometimes strong in these months ; 
they bring, at times, sharp squalls, and from time to time 
gales of wind, which have been already described. The 
month of December is the one in which these northerly 
gales occur oftenestj sometimes there are four or five 
during this month. 
, The winds from the N., when only strong or fresh, moder- 

ate toward sunset, and are strongest from 9 a. m.to 3 p. m. 
This rule is modified when the wind from N. does not 



:ilartli. 



^VlNDS— mi-F OF MEXICO. •)•) 

coiniiuMR-o until artornooii, then it continues during the night 
niul increases in force. During these mouths, in the inter- 
N al betweeu the northerly winds, the Aveathm- is tine and 
the reguhir hind and sea breezes bk)W. 

Ill the uiouth of February the gales of winds from the 
X. have a tendency to blow from the în\ îs^. E., and toward 
the end of the season they are oftener from betweeu N. N. 

E. and X. E. 

In the mouth of I^Fareh the winds from î^. are less frequent ; 
they are, however, still fresh, and even smart gales occur, 
indicated by light, curly clouds, called cirro-stratus. lu 
this nu>nth the winds from X. bring clear weather, and are, 
during their lirst day, stronger than in the preceding mouths. 
From what has been said of winds from the X., the necessity 
will be seen, when at anchor and without protection near 
the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico, of being constantly in 
readiness to get under way. It is certainly preferable, with 
these winds, to lay to in the ofting than to run the risk of 
foundering at anchor. 

If near the south coast of the gulf, as soon as a gale from 
the X. is indicated, it is well to attempt to reacli the 
Bank of Campeachy, where the sea is always sufficiently 
smooth when to the westward of the meridian of Sisal, and 
lieave to on the parallel of 20° X., and await good weather. 

Following the general remarks we will make the tonr of 
the Gulf of Mexico, and indicate the winds peculiar to some 
localities, and the periods when they blow. 

In the Bahama Channel the trade-winds are found from 
the X. E.; they are interrupted during the winter by the 
winds from the X., and in the sunmier by calms. In the 
winter, from Xovember to April, the winds there are vari- 
able from the E. to S., and fron.i S. to the W. In December 
and January the wind i^fteu comes from the X., variable to 
the X. W., and blows with violence at times for seven or 
eight days in succession. 

In summer, from May to September, the prevailing winds 
in this channel are from S. E. to S. W., hauliug by the S. 
In March and April the winds are frequentl 

From the parallel of 28° X. to the cays, south of Florida, ^ west coast of 
the trade-winds prevail, and last during the suumier until 
a little after noon ; they are then replaced by the breeze 
from the offing, blowing between the S. and W. In the 
winter, especially from Xovember to March, the winds are 



56 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 

from S. to W., and raise a heavy sea. In July and August 
tornadoes occur, blowing generally from S. W. and S. S. W. 
^Appaiachee j^ Appalaclice Bay tlie winds from W. and N. W. blow 
nearly all the year, and with considerable force from 9h. 
to lOh. in the morning until midnight. In the spring 
there are strong winds from the S., which are rare during 
the summer and winter. The winds from N. E., which are 
at times violent in the spring and autumn, are never of long 
duration. 
a?a°chei^B^ ^to ^" ^^^^ coast compriscd between Appalachee Bay and the 
the Mississippi. Mississippi, and in a zone extending as far as 28° N. lati- 
tude, from the month of IMarch to July, the winds blow in 
the morning from IsT. to E., and from E, to S. ; in the after- 
noon they pass to the S. W. In Angust the w^inds are gen- 
erally from ]!Sr. E. to E., from S. E. and S. W. In September, 
October, and November they are from the N. E, It can be 
said that the prevailing winds on this coast are those from 
the E., for during a year the number of days during which 
these winds prevail, comi^ared with those of westerly" winds, 
is as two to one. 

On the west coast of Florida the laud and sea breezes are 
generally experienced. 
Pensacoia. At Peusacola in the morning the breezes are from IST. to 

E., and from E. to S. ; these are replaced in the afternoon 
' by winds from the S. W. ; this takes place particularly from 
April to July. The breezes from S. W., or from the offing, 
are called '■'■ virasones ;''' they blow in violent squalls in 
August, September, and October. At this period also 
storms and gusts of wind come from the S. From î^ovem- 
ber to March the winds prevail from the î^. ; they commence 
at S. E. and S. with heavy rain, passing to the S. W. and 
W., where they remain some time and blow strong until 
they haul to the N. W. and K., when the w-eather becomes 
good. 

The following observations, made in 1847, 1849, 1851, and 
1852, are added by the translator; they are taken from 
" Notes on the winds of the coast of the United States on the 
Gulf of Mexico," by the late Professor A. D. Bache, Super- 
intendent United States Coast Survey : 

" The observations were made in connection with those of 
the tides, at the Coast Survey stations at Key West, Flor- 
ida, Fort Morgan, Alabama, and Galveston, Texas, and in- 
cluded the direction of the wind and its force by estimate. 



^VI>'DS— SOUTH COAST OF TIIK UNITEU STATES. 57 

The (k'sciiptioii of the means of observation, of the scale 
used in I'stimatinjj;' its foree from to 10, and of the mode 
of obtaininji- from the observations tlie quantity of wind 
bhiwing- from ditierent directions, given to the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science .at the Charles- 
ton meeting, and ])nblished in its proceedings, applies to the 
present observations and results. The accompanying com- 
parative diagram is plotted on a compass rose, the average 
([uantity of wind from each direction for the year being laid 
otf from the small circle described about the center of the 
rose, and is represented on a scale of 18,000 miles to the 
inch. 

" The results at the different stations are shown in difter- 
ent kinds of Hues, and the distances representiug the quan- 
tity of air moving from the several points are, for greater 
distinctness, laid off from' a small circle described about the 
center of the compass rose as a center. 

" The dates of observations were from June, 1851, to June, 
1 852, for Key AVest ; from June, 1817, to June, 1849, for 
Fort Morgan; and from July, 1851, to July, 1852, for Gal- 
veston. * * * 

" The following remarks in reference to these results pre- 
sent themselves, but the generalizations lose much of their 
point when expressed in words. The diagram enables the 
eye to seize them with ease and certainty. It is quite prob- 
able that some of these may not be exact for every year, 
though indicated in the result before us. The results have 
a direct bearing on navigation, and an incidental one on 
the i^rogress of the surveying operations themselves. Com- 
merce in this sea, closed to the westward and swept by the 
trade-winds, must be especially indebted to steam-power ; 
the summer sea breeze along part of the coast points this 
out as the track for sailing vessels making to the eastward, 
at least along part of the coast. The current of the Gulf 
Stream is an essential aid to the navigator of the Florida 
Pass, constantly impeded by the prevalence of easterly 
winds. 

"The mixed character of the winds at Fort Morgan and winds. 

it 1 i T J- -IT,. ,1 ; T^ ~.T- , • ■ Fort Morgan, 

Ualvestou, as tlistinguished trom those at Key West, is m- Galveston, and 
structive, when considered in reference to their positions in ^^ 
relation to land and water. The geographical positions of 
these jdaces aie appro))riate to the investigation of the winds 
of the Gulf; Key West, in latitude 24° 33' K, and longitude 



58 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 

81° 48' W., being near the eastern entrance ; Fort Morgan, 
latitude 30° 13' K., and longitude 88° 00' W., near the mid- 
dle of the northern coast of the gulf; and Galveston, latitude 
29° 18' N., and longitude 94° 46' W., ou the western coast, 
not quite one degree north of Key West, and but half a de- 
gree further west of Fort Morgan than that position is of 
Key West. 

" The winds observed in connection with the tides at in- 
termediate points between these, and extending the obser- 
vations to the Eio Grande, will be discussed in turn. 

" Following the diagram, I propose, first, to trace the pre- 
vailing winds in the year; second, those in the several 
months and seasons and at the différent places ; third, the 
changes in quantity with the season ; fourth, the varieties 
in direction from one season to another of winds from nearly 
the same quarter. 

"1. Winds from some northern quarter prevail from Sep- 
tember until February, both inclusive, and southwardly^ 
winds from March to August, inclusive. Winds from the 
eastward prevail throughout the year, except at Fort Mor- 
gan in May, June, July, and August, when the sea breeze 
is from the S. W. In the whole year the winds from the 
same quarter IST. and S. balance each other nearly, while the 
eastwardly wind greatly predominates over the westwardly. 

" 2. As remarked in my former x)aper, the months may be 
classed, according to the prevailing winds, into the follow- 
ing classes: The winter, consisting of December and Jan- 
uary ; the spring, of March and. April ; the summer, of May, 
June, and July ; of preparation for change, August ; the 
autumn, of September, October, and jSTovember. 

'' The winter and summer types are extremely distinct. 
At Key West, in December and January, JST, E. and N. are 
the prevailing winds; at Fort Morgan, îsT., E. S. E., and E.; 
at Galveston, K. and K W., then E. jST. E. and S. E. I sup- 
]}ose the general course of the N. E. trade-wind to be dis- 
turbed by local action at Fort Morgan and Galveston, the 
local position of greatest warmth being the Gulf. 

" The summer type. May, June, and July, gives S. E. as 
the prevailing wind at Key West; the S. E., S., and S. W. 
(sea breeze) at Fort Morgan; the S., S. E., and E. at Gal- 
veston, blowing toward the land. 

" August resembles July, with the appearance of winds 
which prevail in the autumn. 



WODS — SOUTH COAST OF THK INITKI) STATES. âî) 

''III September, October, and November, at Key AVe«t, E. 
X. K. prevail; at Fort Morgan, N., X. K., E.; and at Gal- 
veston, X., X. E., E., and N.AV. 

"•In Marcli and Ai)ril, the spring' period, S. E., S. !S. E., 
and E. winds prevail at Key West ; 'N., S. S. E., and E. S. E. 
at Eort IMorgan ; and X., S. E., and S. at Galveston. 

'' February resembles January with a preparation lor the 
spring- period, and, like August, it is characterized at Fort 
Morgan and Galveston by a general diminution in llie 
quantity of wind. 

" January presents the lull winter type of the winds on 
the Gulf, and June and July the full summer type. The 
changes are quite gradual and tolerably regular from one 
extreme to the other, 

'' 3. The following deductions are made from these obser- 
vations in regard to the least and the greatest quantities of 
Avind in the principal directions in different portions of the 
year. 

" The X. wind is a minimum at the three places in 
July, and a maximum in January. It is a very remarkable 
feature at all three places in January. The N. W. almost 
dies out at all three from May to September, iirst gaining- 
strength at Galveston in October, and reaching- its maxi- 
mum in all the places in December. Its quantity at Key 
West and Fort Morgan is small when at the maximum. 

"The northers and northwesters both appear in force in 
April, at Galveston. There is very little W. wind at either 
place, but more at Fort Morgan than either of the others 
and chiefly during the months of June and July. 

" S. W. wind is of rare occurrence exceptât Fort Morgan, 
where it constitutes the sea breeze of summer, and reaches 
its maximum in June and July, suddenly diminishing in 
September, 

" There is but little S. wind at Key West ; at Fort Mor- 
gan it increases in amount in the spring- and is the greatest 
in June. It is decidedly a marked feature as one of the 
prevailing spring winds at Galveston, reaching- its maximum 
in ]May and becoming quite small in iVugust, reappearing- in 
the winter, and rapidly increasing in March. 

"The N. E. wind is a minimum at the three places in 
July and August : is largest in quantity in September, Oc- 
tober, November, and December at Key West; in Septem- 
ber and October at Fort Morgan ; and in September, De- 



60 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 

cember, and January at Galveston. The sudden increase 
of this wind in September, after its small quantity in August^ 
is remarkable at all three places. 

''The winds intermediate between N. E. and S. E. occur 
during the changes from N. E. to S. E., and it would be of 
little value to refer to the greatest and least quantities. 

" The S. E. wind is a minimum in December and January 
at Key West; in Januarj^ and February at Fort Morgan; 
in December and January at Galveston. It is a maximum 
.at Key West in July, but being replaced during the sum- 
mer to a great extent hj the sea breeze (S. W^.) at Fort 
Morgan, makes its maximum in jSTovember, and at Galves- 
ton in May, doubtless from the disturbing eifect of the land; 
it is again large in July. This is the sea breeze of Key 
West, and, as well as the S. wind, that of Galveston. 

"4. The movement of the prevailing wind at Key West,. 
where the disturbing causes of the land are the least, is very 
instructive. 

"The prevailing wind in April, May, June, and July is 
the S. E., hauling to the eastward in August, and becoming* 
E. S. E. In September and October it passes further north 
to E. N. E., and in jSTovember and December becomes N, E., 
in January it reaches N. ; returning southward in February 
it is N. N. E., in March E., and reaches the S. E. in April. 
The local action is thus seen to prevail for the greater part 
of the year over the general. For the whole year the S. E. 
wind exceeds any other from an eastwardly point. 

"The eastwardly wind at Fort Morgan reaches no further 
south than E. S. E., in the spring and summer. In Septem- 
ber the prevailing' wind is K. E., passing to E. N. E. in Oc- 
tober, and back to E. S. E. in the winter and spring. The 
general tendency for the year is then E. S. E. 

" The changes at Galveston resemble those at Key West^ 
the general absence of E. N. E. and E. S. E. winds being due 
to defects in the observations. 

"5. Of the winds in the three localities it may be said 
that the S. E. is the characteristic between Key West and 
the others; the S. W. between Fort Morgan and the others, 
and the N. W. between Galveston and the other places. 

"The S. wind is another peculiar feature of Galveston, 
shared in a corresponding degree during" one month only by 
Fort Morgan. In the prevalence of trade-winds during cer- 
tain months Fort Morgan and Galveston are alike. 



\VIND8— SOl'Tll COAST OF TUH I'NITKI) STATES. (U 

" The chaiiK'toristic tbnus of the suiliiee, ivpivsi'ntinj;' tho 
whole tiuautity of wind each month at Key West is very 
marked. It is shared by Galveston fully oiily in July and 

Align St. 

''From May onward to Septenjber, inclusive, there ap- 
pears to be little dan-er of northers, yet the month of June 
shows a considerable amount of this wind. 

" The velocity of the wind represented in the diagram for 
:\Iay at Galveston corresponds to 11.7 miles per hour, which 
is nearly the velocity for the average of the whole year. 



02 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 






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WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. Go 



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64 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 



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Wl^DS — SOUTU COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 05 



WIIOLK YEAH. 




NOTES. 



The curve for Key West is represented thus : 

The curve for FORT MORGAN is rejiresented thus: - 

The curve for Galveston is represented thus : 

The diagram plotted on a compass rose represents the average quantity of wind from each direction for 
the whole year on a scale of 18,000 miles to the inch. 

The circumference of the small circle drawn around the center of the compass rose represents the zero or 
starting point. 

The observations were made at KEY WEST from June, 1851, to June, 1852; at FORT MORGAN from June, 
1847, to June, 1849 ; and at G-AL VESTON from July, 1851, to July, 1852. 

5 A o 



66 WINDS — COAST OF THE GULF OF MEXICO. 

MSils*ipi5iT, !he ^^^0™ *^^ moutlas of the Mississippi to the Bay of Mata" 
Bay oi- Matiit.ir- gorda, froin the month of April to August, the laud breeze 
blows at da-j'break ; a little after, the wiud hauls to E. S. 
E. or to S. E., and blows from S, W. in the afternoon. 

In July, August, and September, squalls are frequent^ 
with wind and rain ; there are also wiuds from the S. vary- 
ing from S. to S. W. in sharp squalls and lasting several 
days. 

The worst months for navigating this coast are those of 
August, September, October and November, because the 
winds are violent and blow ui)on the coast, and sufflcient 
sail cannot frequently be carried to get an offing if neces- 
sary. 

In February, March, and April there is m^^ch fog at the^ 
mouth of the Mississippi. Erom December to March the 
winds are often from the N. and blow with violence. If 
these winds turn to the E. or to the S. of E. the weather 
becomes hazy, cloudy, and foggy. 
Coast from the Erom the Bay of Matagorda to. Tampico the winds from 

. Bay of Matagor- r^-n ' j_j_p ji i n a • 

da to Tampico, the S. E. quarter are constant irom the month of Aprd to 
August ; during the other months violent winds occur from 
E. to E. S. E., which last two or three days before it comes 
from the N. 

During the line season the land breezes are regular from 
llh. p. m. to 9 or lOh. a. m. 
Coast from Ou the coast of Tampico and Yera Cruz, from April to 

Tampico to Vera -"- ^ -^ 

^T'uz. July, the winds during the day blow from the E., variable 

to E. S. E. ; during the night they go to the S. and S. W., 
that is, they blow from the land. If the land breeze should 
go to the N. W., accompanied with a light rain, the wind 
will ordinarily come the next day from the N., N. N. E., or 
from IsT. E., especiallj^ in August and September. The land 
breezes are called vientos de cabeza or vendavales ; these 
winds are generally light and extend from sixty to ninety 
miles from the coast, and at this distance they are from E. 
or from E. S. E.* 
Vera Crnz. At "Vera Cruz the winter commences about the middle of 

May and ends toward the middle of July. There are then 
frequent interruptions in the trade- winds, much fog and many 
storms. From the end of July to the middle of October, 
the period at which the northerly winds set in, the storms 
are heavier ; the most violent come from the E. and last 

*Bernardocle Orta, Berrotero de las Antillas. 



WINDS — COAST OF ^lEXICO. 07 

but il short tiino ; the winds from the K prevail aftci- the 
iiii(hlU' OÏ October to the inouth of JNIareh. 

The winds from this quarter moderate generally at sunset; 
they are stron,i;-est from l)h. in the morninfi- until .'»h. in 
the eveninji-, but they do not commenee until afteinoon or 
toward the end of the day ; they continue during the night 
increasing gradually in force. It happens at times that at 
night, and even after midnight, the wind hauls to N. W. 
and blows oft' the land. In this case, should it go to the 
S. ^V'. toward morning, it is probable that the wind from K. 
will not continue, and that the breeze from the offing will 
return at the usual hour, from 9 to 10 in the morning ; but 
if this does not take place about or at the time of sunrise, 
at the commencement of the flood, the winds from the N. 
will commence again with the same force as on the preced- 
ing day ; it is then called the tide iciml from the N., norte 
(le kl marea. 

The winds from the N. end by turning to the eastward — 
this is a guarantee of good weather. If the wind goes to the 
X. E. in the afternoon, then, even should the ^ky be clouded 
over the following morning, if during the night the land 
breeze has blown from the S. to W., the sea breeze may be 
calculated on in the evening; the weather then remains 
good for five or six days ; this is about the longest period 
with the winds from K. 

In the case when from IS". E. the wind returns to N. î^. E. 
and to N., the weather is very uncertain.* 

The state of the sea is also a good index of the end of 
a norther ; t it goes down gradually, becoming smoother 
four or five hours before the wind ceases to blow. Wishing 
to return to an anchorage it is well to be aware of this cir- 
cumstance. 

These remarks upon the winds are important in making 
the land at Yera Cruz. 

On the coast of IMexico, from Vera Cruz to Point Piedras, Coast of Mexico 
during the dry season, the regular land and sea breezes t™Poiiit pïedras. 
blow ; the sea breezes from the northward, that from the 
land from the southward, from 7h. to 8h. in the evening to 
8h. or Oh. in the morning. The dry season lasts from 
September to April or May ; it commences with tornadoes 
and violent squalls, which become more and more frequent 

* Bernardo de Orta, Derrotero de las AntiUas. 

t Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, Caiîtain de Kerhallet. 



68 WINDS — WEST INDIES. 

iu May and June. The heavy rains fall in July and Au- 
gust ; they are then continual and abundant. In this sea- 
son there are at times heavy winds from B. S. E., which 
last for three or four days. 

The winds from N. to N. E. commence in October ; they 
are very strong in December and January and then de- 
crease in strength to March. Generally they are fresh and 
dry, and stronger than the ordinary winds. 
Coast from Qn the portiou of the coast comprised between Point Pie- 

Point Piedras to , , , -, , , 

Cape catociie. dras aud Cape Catoche the seasons are nearly the same as 
those just indicated, only the prevailing winds are those from 
IsT. E., interrupted, in the season in which thej^ predominate, 
by strong winds from the N. In April tornadoes may be ex- 
pected, blowing from the K. E. to the S. E. This season of 
sharp, sudden squalls continnes to September, and as long 
as it lasts the winds of the ofhng blow upon the coast from 
K. N. W. to K. W. These breezes come up at about llh. 
in the morning, and dnring the night they haul to the 
E. and E. S. E., then to S. E, ', they can be regarded as land 
breezes. 

It is remarkable that the stronger the winds from K. î^. 
W. to X. W. are, the more violent are the tornadoes which 
interrupt them momentarily. 

On this part of the coast it is observed, besides, that the 
rainy season is much shorter than on the neighboring coast 
to the west. 

We will for a time leave the coast at Cape Catoche, the 
southern limit of the Gulf of Mexico, to describe the winds 
in some of the West India Islands. 
West India The trade- wiuds from N. E., varying to the S. E., prevail, 
particularly in the Caribbean Sea, but on approacoing the 
shores of the islands there are disturbances in these winds 
which we will indicate. On the coast of the Greater An- 
tilles, Cuba, Jamaica, San Domingo, and Porto Eico the sea 
breeze blows regularly during the day, and that from the 
land during the night. These land breezes are the freshest 
that are known, and are extremely favorable to navigators 
going from W. to E. in this sea. 

In the Lesser Antilles or Windward Islands there are no 
land breezes, or rather they blow too short a distance off the 
coast to be of service to navigation. 

In these islands two seasons are marked, the dry and the 
rainy. The limits of these seasons vary according to the 



WINDS — IIUIMMCANKS. T.!) 

positions of tlio isliinds; it niny bo said, however, that the 
former hists from Oetober to June and the latter from June 
to October. 

J)uring- the dry season the N. E. trades bh)Nv regularly 
and fresh, with a clear sky. ])uring the winter, from June 
to October, there are tornadoes aiul hurricanes, which take 
place particularly between the lath of July and the 15th of 
October. 

The following chronological table of the i>rincipal hurri- 
canes which have devastated the AYest Indies during a pe- 
riod of one hundred and sixty-two years, is from Johnston: 
1675, August 31, Barbadoes. 
1081, Antigua. 
1707, Antigua. 
1712, August 28, Jamaica. 
1722, August 28, Jamaica. 
1720, October 22, Jamaica. 
1710, Antigua. 
1714, October 20, Jamaica. 
1751, September 2, Jamaica. 
1700, August 13, Sau Domingo and Hayti. 
1772, Antigua. 
1780, October 3, Jamaica. 

1780, October 10, Barbadoes, Martinique, Porto Eico, San 

Domingo, Bermudas. 

1781, August 1, Jamaica. 
1781, July 30, Jamaica. 
1785, August 27, Jamaica. 
1780, October 20, Jamaica. 

1791, October 20, Jamaica. 

1792, Antigua. 

1795, August 1, Antigua. 

1801, September 3, Antigua, &c., 

1804, September 19, Islands of Bahama, 

1805, July 25, the vicinity of the Islands of Bahama. 
1800, September, the vicinity of the Islands of Bahama. 
1807, October 14, between Jamaica and Santa Marta. 

1809, August 3, Porto Rico, San Domingo. 

1810, August 18, Porto Rico, San Domingo. 
1812, August 14, Jamaica. 

1812, October 12, Jamaica. 

1813, August 1, Jamaica. 

1815, October 18 and 19, Jamaica. 

1818, September 10 to 12, Cayman and Campeachy. 



70 WINDS — HURRICANES. 

1818, September 19, Alia Yela and San Doinino-o. 
1818, September 21, Barbadoes and Dominica. 
1818, September 22 to 25, Antigua. 
1818, October 7, Jamaica. 

1819, , Barbadoes. 

1821, September 1, Bahama, Carolinas, &g. 
1827, August 17, St. Martin, St. Thomas. 
1830, August 12, St. Thomas. 
1830, August 22, Islands of Bahama. 

1830, September 29, north part of the West Indies. 

1831, June 23, Trinity, Tobago, and Grenada. 
1831, August 10, Barbadoes. 

1835, August 12, Antigua, St. Thomas. 

1835, September 3, Barbadoes. 

1835, July 10, Barbadoes, St. Vincent, and Santa Lucia. 

1837, July 26, Barbadoes. 

1837, August 2, Antigua, St. Thomas. 

1837, August 16 to 25, north coast of the Windward Islands. 

From the above it is seen that in a jjeriod of one hundred 
and sixty-two years the hurricanes of the West Indies oc- 
curred as follows : In J une, 2 ; July, 4 ; August, 18 ; Sep- 
tember, 11 5 October, 10.* 

We will review, in the following pages, the hurricanes of 
the three great seas of the globe in a few general remarks. 
A special study of these terrible tempests would be beyond 
the province of this work. 
Hurricanes. Hurricaucs f take place in the three great seas of the 

globe — the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific Oceans; 
the latter, soit dit en passant, (jould be more suitably called 
the Great Ocean. 

* According to Blodget : Climate of United States, p. 400, from obser- 
vations extending over nearly four centuries, hurricanes have occurred 
in the West India Islands and their vicinity in the following ratio j»er 
100 for the different months of the year : 

January, 1.5; February, 2; March, 3 ; April, 2 ; May, 1.5; June, 3 ; 
July, 7; August, 28.5; Sejîtember, 24; October, 20.5; November, 5; De- 
cember, 2. 

t For a more complete description of hurricanes, &c., we would refer 
mariners to the excellent treatise of M. Keller, hydrographie engineer, 
Paris: Traité stir les Ouragans, c^-c; and also to Silliman's Journal; to 
Reid, Attempt to Develop the Laws of Storms ; to Thom, Inquiry into the 
Nature and Laws of Storms ; to Piddingtou, Horn Boole of Sto7'ms, Oiserva- 
tions on lievolving Storms, British Admiralty ; and the Memoir on the Storms 
of the East Indies, by Lieutenant Lefebvre. 



^VINDS — IIU K i; 1( " ANES. 7 1 

111 (he Atlantic Ocoaii, the West indies is tlic center of 
the most terrible lini'i'icanes known. In the Indian Ocean 
it is ;il>out the ]»osition of K'odriyiiez, IManritins, and Ké- 
uiiion Islands, lu the Pacitic, where ver3" lew observations 
have thus far bceu made, it is supposed to be iu tlie viciuity 
of the Tou<ia Islands. 

In the West Indies and their vicinity, the seasou duriufi,- Porioiiof huni- 
Avhicli hurricaues maybe expected is that comprised betweeu *^'"'"*' 
the mouths of August aud October; at this period the nav 
iyatiou of the West ludies, of the Gulf of Mexico, aud 
south coast of the United States, should be avoided as 
umch as i^ossible. 

If it is necessary to winter in these localities a perfectly 
protected port should be chosen, Hurricaues seldom occur 
iu June or July. 

In the Indian Ocean, hurricanes take place from Decem- 
ber to April ; that is, during the w^armest months of the 
southern hemisphere ; they seldom occur iu November and iu 
May, and are unknown during the other months of the year. 

Iu the Pacific Ocean, to the south of the Equator the 
known hurricanes have taken pLace iu jSTovember and in 
December, and they appear to have much similarity to 
those of the Indian seas. 

In the Atlantic Ocean, to the north of the Equator, the The supposed 

" ■■ ' extent ot rlie 

SU] )i)osed extent of the zone where hurricanes are exneri- zp^es where hm-- 

^ ^ ^ ricanes are met 

enced is comprised between the latitude of 10° and 50° N., with. 
and the longitude of 50° and 100° W. 

In the Indian Ocean, the extent of this zone in longitude 
is three thousand miles, from the west coast of Australia to 
that of Madagascar, and is comprised between the latitude 
of GO or 8° S. aud 22° S.* 

Having indicated the different treatises published on hur- 
ricanes, w^e cite particularly that of M. Keller and the me- 
moir of M. Lefebvre, and would refer all seamen to these 
works who may wish to familiarize themselves with the 
manner in which the general laws of storms are deduced 
from theory, as also the practical rules for escaping their 
violence. This subject does not enter into the plan of this 
memoir, iu W'hich Ave only state facts without searching for 
the causes. We will limit ourselves by giving the general 
laws of hurricanes, as deduced from numerous observations, 
* See General Examination of the Indian Ocean. 



72 



WINDS — HURRICANES. 



Gyratory move 
meut. 



Movement 
translation. 



of 



and refer for the practical directions to the Appendix l^o. 1 
at the end of this work. 

These teini:)ests have a double movement ; the one gyra- 
tory, or rotary, the other of translation, or movement from 
one place to another.* 

To the north of the Equator the gyratory movement is 
from the right to the left in passing by the N. ; that is to 
say, in an opposite direction to the movement of the hands 
of a watch. In the southern hemisphere, on the contrary, 
it is from right to left in passing by the IST., or in the same 
direction as the movement of the hands of a watch. 

The movement of translation is uiDon a parabolic curve, 
the apex of which is always turned toward the W., and the 
branches throw themselves out to the E. The apex of this 
curve is tangent to the meridian about the latitude of 30° 
in the northern hemisphere, and about that of 26° in the 
southern hemisphere ; that is to say, nearly at the polar 
limits of the trade-winds. The hurricane moves on this 
curve in departing from the Equator; in other words, the 
point of departure of the hurricane is at the eastern ex- 
tremity of the curve of its path nearest approaching the 
Equator, and in a latitude nearly equal to the declination 
of the sun ; from thence, the hurricane, in the flrst half of 
its course, is directed toward the apex of the curve, or to- 
ward the W.; then it follows this apex as tangent to the 
meridian, bending afterward to the E., in the portion of the 
curve of its path the furthest removed from the Equator. 

Telocity of The vclocity of the translation is in proportion to the 
violence of the tempest. In the mildest hurricanes ob- 
served, it has not been less than ten miles an hour, and in 
the most violent it has not exceeded thirty miles, t 

Diameter of the Nearly all authors on this subject, observes M. Lefebvre, 
have sought to measure the diameter of the vortex, and, 
this diameter being known, to determine from the force of 
the wind and the falling of the barometer at what distance 
the observer was from the center. They have succeeded 
but indiiferently ; the diameter of the vortex of hurricanes 

* The following is taken from the treatise of M. Keller. 

t M. Lefebvre states that for the Indian Ocean these velocities are too 
great, and he estimates for the movement of translation a velocity of 
from five to six miles an hour, as a mean, for, he adds, hnrricanes do not 
change their place but at a rate of velocity of two miles per hour. — 
Memoir on the Hurricanes of the Indies, 4'0-, page 12. 



WINDS — nUERIOANES. 73 

is very variable. M. Keller states that the initial diameter 
of the {ïyratory movement is from 3^ to 4° of the terrestrial 
are, and that it increases progressively as it advances, until 
it attains S*^ or 9° at the extremity of the cnr\e of its path. 

In the northern hemisphere, the vessels i)laced on tliegp^,i'^JJ.gfj^f ^•'"■'' 
edije of the rijiht parallel to the path of the center, and in 
the sontliern hemisphere those placed on the edge of the 
left, are those most injured. 

A ship surprised l)y a hurricane perceives successively 
every direction of the rotary movement of the air on a 
secant parallel to the path of the center of the meteor ; * 
these changes of direction never make the tour of the com- 
pass. When the secant traverses the center of the meteor 
the wind changes sixteen points at the center perpendicu- 
larly to the line of translation, and after an interval of calm. 

On each secant the barometer falls gradually to the in- oscillations of 

'^ * the baronifter. 

stant of the passage of the point nearest the center, then 
it rises progressively from this moment until the end of the 
tempest, which corresponds to the extremity of the secant. 
But, says M. Lefebvre, the violence of the wind is no more 
connected with the diameter of the vortex than the fall of 
the barometer is. The wind increases as the center is ap- 
proached, and the barometer constantly falls; this is all 
that can be said. To attempt to establish a general rule on 
this point would most likely lead to error, t 

Such, according to M. Keller, are the laws princii)ally ob- 
served in hurricanes. These laws known, the attempt has 
been made to utilize them, and to give to seamen the means 
of avoiding the violence of these terrible phenomena. The 
two problems to solve were these : 1st, to determine in a 
hurricane the position occupied by the vessel in relation to 
the movement of translation of the meteor ; 2d, this posi- 
tion known, to determine which may be the best maneuver 
to make to receive the hurricane or to cross it in the man- 
ageable semicircle. The tirst problem is easily resolved, 
and M. Keller has given us on this subject a very important 
general rule which can be applied to every type of tempest, 
whether they have a convergent or divergent character ; 
that is to say, whether the wind in turning describes a 
circle, or whether it is directed from the circumference to 

* Some authors state that iu these tempests the wind attains a ve- 
locity of even ninety miles an hour. 
i Memoir on Hurricanes, tf-c, page IL 



74 WINDS — HURRIOANES. 

the center of the vortex, or from its center toward the cir- 
cumference. 

The following is the principle on which can he determined 
in every case whether you are to the right or to the left of 
the path of the storm : * 

" Every vortex, in moving, causes to be felt at fixed j)oints 
on its passage to the left of the path of its center a suc- 
cessive change of wind, turning by compass to the left, or 
in an opposite direction to the movement of the hands of a 
watch. It causes to be experienced at points situated to the 
right of this path a succession of winds which turn by the 
compass to the right, with the movement of the hands of a 
w^atch." 

Thus, when a hurricane threatens, by remaining one or 
two hours in nearly the same position, and observing with 
great care the successive variations of the wind, the iDOsi- 
tion of the vessel with regard to the line of its path can be 
determined without difiliculty, and consequently whether 
you are in the dangerous or manageable semicircle. 

In hurricanes of a rotary type it is very easy to determine 
the bearing of the center of the tempest with regard to the 
vessel. We have said, in effect, that in these tempests, that 
to the north of the Equator the wind turns from right to 
left, contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
and that to the south of the Equator it turns from left to 
right. Then whatever may be the space occupied by the 
tempest, the wind blows always in describing a circle. Ev- 
idently the center of this circle should be found on the per- 
pendicular to the direction of the existing wind. Conse- 
quently, it is sulficient to determine by compass the direc- 
tion of the wind, and the center will be 90° to the right, if 
in the northern hemisphere, and 90° to the left if in the 
southern hemisphere. 

In order to avoid error in this particular, the following 
table can be used, which gives at once, from the direction 
of the wind, the bearing of the center of the storm for 
each hemisphere : 

* Menwir on the Typlioon of lltli to 14th Septenxber, 1840, page 3. In a 
memoir mucli more comprehensive, which includes the researches made 
by M. Keller on hurricanes, which is yet uni^ublished, the principle 
which we give here in so condensed a sha^ie will be accompanied by ex- 
planations, &c., which will demonstrate its correctness and its practical 
aj)plication. 



WINDS — HURRICANES. 



Korthorii beiuisphero. 



It' llic wiiiil i.s — 



N 

N.byE 

N.N.E 

N.E.byîf 

N.E 

X. E. by E 

E.X.E 

K.byN 

E 

E.byS 

E. S. E 

S. E. byE 

S.E 

S. E. by S 

S. S.E 

S. by E 

S 

S.by W 

S. S.W 

S.W.byS 

S.W 

S. W. by W . . . . 

W. S. W 

W.by S 

^^ 

W.byN 

VT.N.W 

N. W.by W.... 

N. W 

N.W.byN .... 

X.X.W 

N. by W 



Tbo ci'iitiT 
beais — 



E 

E.byS 

E.S.E 

S.E.byE... 

S.E 

S. E. by S . . . 

S. S.E 

S. byE 

S 

S.by W 

s.s,^v 

S. W. by s . . 

S.W 

S. W. by W . 
W.S.W.... 

W.by S 

W 

W. by X ... . 
W. N.W.... 
X. W.by W. 

N. W 

KW.byN.. 
KN.W .... 
Kby W.... 

N 

N.byE 

N. N. E 

X. E. by X . . 

X. E 

X. E. by E . . 

E.X'.E 

E. by X 



Soutbern bemisphorc. 



If tbo wind i.s — 



X 

X. by E 

X.X.E 

X. E. by X ... . 

X^. E 

X". E. by E . . . . 

E.X.E 

E.byX 

E 

E.byS 

E. S. E 

S. E. by E 

S. E 

S. E. by S 

S.S.E 

S. byE 

S 

S.byW 

S. S. W 

S. W. by S . . . . 

S.W 

S. W. by W . . . 

TT. S. W 

W.by S 

W 

W.byX 

W.N.W 

X'.W.by W... 

X. W 

X. W. by X . . . 

X. X. w 

N.by W 



Tbu ci'iiUn- 
beai'8 — 



W. 

W. by X. 

W. X. W. 

X. W. by W. 

X. AV. 

X^. W. by X. 

X. N. W. 

X. by W. 

X. 

X. by E. \ 

X. X". E. 

X^. E. by X\ 

X. E. 

X^. E. by E. 

E. X. E. 

E. by X^. 

E. 

E. by S. 

E.S.E. 

S. E. by E. 

S.E. 

S. E. by S. 

S. S. E. 

S. by E. 

S. 

S. by W. 

s. s. w. 

S. W. by S. 

S.TT. 

S. W. by W. 

^Y. S. W. 

W. by S. 



The bearing- of the center of a hurricane from the vessel 
being known, it is certainly desirable to determine its dis- 
tance; for this, however, no precise rule has as yet been 
found. Some very good inferences may be drawn from the 
quickness or sluggishness with which it appears to develop 
itself, from the increasing violence of the squalls, from the 
irregularity of the sea which rises in several directions, and 
above all from the rapid variations of the barometer. 

A remarkable trait of the rotary gale is the increase of 
the wind in the vicinity of its center, although at the center 
itself it blows so irregularly and by squalls as to render it 
impossible for a ship to complete a maneuver. The nearer 
the center is approached the more sudden are the changes 



76 WINDS — HURin CANES. 

of the wiuds, which instead of shifting- point by point, as is 
the case at the entrance of the circle of the tempest, it shifts 
all at once sixteen points. The ship is enveloped in a ter- 
rible squall, and gathers stem-board against a frightful sea, 
the disastrous consequences of which it would be unneces- 
sary to detail. 

The undulations and currents of hurricanes appear to be 

the constant results of these violent atmospheric shocks. 

These two phenomena deserve to be the subject of serious 

study and research. 

Undulations of The uudulatiou of the hurricane is a mass of water of 

the hurricane. it t i « 

greater or less diameter, according- to the lorce of the tem- 
pest raised above the ordinary level of the ocean by the atmo- 
spheric pressure or other cause. This mass is driven before 
the storm in its course until it encounters some obstacle, as 
the mouths of rivers, bays or coasts, when it often j)roduces 
serious inundations or heavy bores. 
Currents of the The cuiTcnts of a hurricaue can be briefly defined as cir- 
cular currents, where the circumference of the tempest is of 
a rotarj^ type. 

There are also in every hurricane two forces, independent 
of that of the wind, which act upon a vessel, the one drawing- 
her directly in the line of the path of the storm, the other 
drawing her toward the circumference of that portion of 
the rotary circle where she is placed; thus While the drift 
due to the undulation of the hurricane sets towards the 
W., the current of the hurricane will set towards the W. 
on the northern jjortion of the rotary circle ; it will set to the 
E. on the southern part of this circle, to the S. on the 
western portion, and to the N. on the eastern portion of the 
same circle. If the rotary motion is from E. to W. passing- 
by the K., as in the hurricanes of the northern hemi- 
sphere, the rotary motion would be in the opposite direction 
in the hurricanes of the southern hemisphere.* Electricity 
seems to take a great x^art in hurricanes, though very often 
it may escape observation. 

Among the thirty-two hurricanes of the Indian Ocean, of 
which the data is precise, eleven have been accompanied by 
thunder and lightning, while in twenty-one no electric phe- 
nomena were observed. Thorn f says that these phenomena 
are five times more frequent on the north side of the curve 

* Inqxnry into the Nature and Course of Storms. 
t Mom Book of Shtrms. 



WINDS — HURRICANES. 77 

of translation of linnicanos than on tlie sontli side, that is, 
in tlio ])ositi()u \\\w\v the monsoons of the W. prevail, lie 
adds that it was so common for lightnin*; in the N. and K 
\V. t«> precede a gale, tliat the Dntch captains when going 
from the Cape of Good Hope to India had orders to reduce 
sail and take every precaution when they saw lightning. 

Ill addition to the menacing aspect of the sky which gen- 
erally precedes all storms, that thick circle round the sun or 
moon, clouds heaped up and distended with their gloomy 
lines of light and their fantastical colors, often of copper 
color, forming a heavy curtain at the horizon, with mena- 
cing points and lines of pale lightning, is known to every 
sailor. These clouds rise little by little, covering soon the 
whole horizon. In approaching the zenith squalls form be- 
fore the strength of the tempest ; the rain falls in torrents, 
and at the same time the hurricane bursts.* 

The barometer and sympiesometer are most valuable in- 
struments in the region of hurricanes, and should be atten- 
tively consulted. In these regions a great fall of the mercury 
below its ordinary level never takes place without being 
followed by a tempest. We have given above its course in 
hurricanes. 

Heavy rains always accompany tempests of a rotary type. 
At a distance of one hundred miles from each side of the 
rotary circle, there is a heavy bank of clouds giving out tor- 
rents of water without interruption, and this during several 
weeks. 

Hurricanes seldom penetrate into the Gulf of Mexico, 
though three or four have ravaged its coast, and reached as 
far as Vera Cruz. Among others that of 18th of August, 
1810, and that of 23d of June, 1831. 

To leeward of the high land which forms the greater part c a i m s an a 
of the West India Islands calms are often experienced, in- w^es't '^I'udi.a 
terrupted by violent and dangerous squalls descending the 
gorges of the mountains. It is only two or three leagues in 
the of&ng that the regular breeze is felt. The flaws are an- 
nounced only by a sharp whistling, and at times by the 
ripple on the surface of the sea. It is necessary to be 
guarded against these flaws when sailing to leeward of the 
islands. Ships have been dismasted by these gusts, and 
some have even been capsized at the entrance of the bays 
where they intended to anchor. 

Strong races occur during the winter in most of the bays Kaces. 

* Lefebvre. 



7b WINDS — WEST INDIES — CUBA. 

of these islands; tliey come generally after a calm or light 
breezes. 
Cuba. In Cuba the rainy season is from June to September. 

Around the island the N. E. trade bloAvs with regularity 
from March to October. During the other months it fre- 
quently takes the direction of N. variable to the N. W., and 
then it is very violent. 

In the fine season the land and sea breeze is regular on 
the northern coast; it commences about 11 a. m. or noon, 
and ceases in the evening, to give place to the laud breeze. 
It is observed that while the trade-wind predominates on 
this coast, the winds blow often from S. to E. in the morning, 
shifting afternoon to E. IST. E. and to îsT. E. until evening. 
At Havana the sea breeze springs up generally at 10 a. m. 
On the southern coast the land and sea breezes alternate; 
the land breeze commences a little after sunset. 

The sudden gusts of wind called los hayamos* are local 
squalls, which blow from the land to the ofi&ng on the south 
coast of Cuba. They have received this name from being- 
more violent in the vicinity of the Bay of Bayamos, situated 
to the north of Cape Cruz, than elsewhere. The hayamos 
are announced by thick clouds covering the mountains, and 
by the thunder which nearly ahvays precedes the wind. 
As soon as the first clap of thunder is heard, sail should be 
taken in and furled, for in the majority of cases the wind 
will arrive immediately after. These squalls are of short 
duration, but they are at times very violent, and as they 
succeed each other at the interval of an hour and even of a 
half hour, it is necessary to watch well the weather, par- 
ticularly during the night, to avoid being surprised, for if 
caught under the upper sails there is nearly a certainty of 
being dismasted or endangering the ship. 

These sudden squalls are accompanied by flashes of light- 
ning which succeed each other with frightful rapidity; they 
are extremely brilliant and leave behind them a bluish tint. 
During the bayamos the sea becomes white with foam and 
rain falls in torrents. 

The following table is a résumé of the observations which 
we have collected on the wind and weather of the Island of 
Cuba. The winds marked with an asterisk (*) are those 
which blow the most frequently : * 



Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer' des Antilles, ^^c, part iii. 



^V1^'D« — WEST INDIES — CUBA. 



Month.-*. 


Most tVr(|Ucut « iml.-i. 


Observations on wiiiil ami wratbcr. 


January 


N., N. E.,* E.,* S. E., 


Generally cloudy ; strong winds from N. ; 




S., S.W.,W., N.W. 


cloiuly ; «(jualls; land and sea breezes irreg- 
ular. 


Fflirnarv 


N.,X.E.,*E.,*S.E., 


Generally clowly : winds fresh ; some strong 




S., S.AV.,W., N.W. 


winds from N. 


starch 


N.,N.E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 


Sea breezes fresh ; some gusts; weather gen- 




S.,N.W. 


erally clear. 


April 


N.,]S'.E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 


Fine generally; winds moderate; land and 




S., S.W.,W., N.W. 


sea breezes. 


May 


K, 2f. E.,* E.,* S. E., 


Fine ; some rain squalls ; winds moderate ; 




S., S.W.,"W., N.W. 


land and sea breezes. 


June 


H-.E.,*E.,*S.E.,*S., 


Fine ; weather dry ; winds moderate ; land and 




S.W. 


sea breezes. 


July 


2f. E., E.,* S. E.,* S., 


A portion very pleasant ; fresh breezes ; rain 




s. w., w. 


at intervals ; calm ; squalls. 


August 


K E., E.,* S. E„* S., 


Squalls with rain; calms; storms; light winds; 




S. W., W., N. W. 


some rain-squalls. 


September 


N.,N".E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 


Very fine ; calms ; sea breezes, light ; sky 




S.W., W., N.W. 


cloudy ; storms. 


October 


îf., K. E.,* E., S. E . . 


Very tine ; moderato breezes ; occasional 
squalls. 


November 


N.,*ÎÎ.E.,*E., S.E., 


Moderate breezes ; occasional squalls ; winds 




S.W., W„N.W. 


fresh; light rain; winds from N. occasion- 
ally ; generally fine. 


December 


2s"., K.E.,*E.,*S.E., 


Good weather ; gales from N. ; fresh breezes ; 




S. W., N. W. 


cloudy. 



We give below a series of obseryations made during a Bahama isi'ds 
year at Nassau, New Providence :* 



Mouths. 


Winds. 


Remarks on the wind and 
weather. 


January 


S N E N N. E. N 


Fresh breezes with clouds. 


N.E., S.E.,]Sr.E 

N.E., S. E., KE., N 


Moderate and variable. 






April 

May 


E., N.E., S.E., N.W 


Clear; a little rain. 




... do 


Clear; dry. 
Light ; clear. 
Squalls with rain. 
Clear ; rain and fog. 
Light ; rain and squalls. 
Moderate ; squalls. 
Variable ; light ; clear. 


July 


S. E., E., S., N. E 

KE., E., N. W., S 


September 

October 


lSr.E.,N.N.W., S 

E. N E N W 


Xovember 


s., s. w., w. s. w 


December 


S., S. W., N. W 









* Montgomery Martin, History, &.c. 



80 WINDS — BAHAMA ISLANDS. 

Barometer. At the Islancl of New Providciice * the movemeut of the 

mercury of the barometer is greater during the winter than 
in the summer. The oscillations are never so considerable 
as observed in higher latitudes ; but as little as they may be^ 
they are wholly appreciable. 

The rain has but little influence on the barometer; sensi- 
tive only to the winds, it rises and falls in accordance with 
the direction from which they blow ; thus the barometer will 
be much higher with the winds from N. to E., accomi)anied 
by rain, than when they vary from S. W. to N. W. by the 
W., without rain. The barometer attains its maximum 
height with the winds from N. E., and its minimum with 
those from 'N. W. 

If during the winter, that is from the commencement of 
October to the end of March, the wind blows strong from 
the N. E., the barometer stands between 30 and 30.1 inches 
to 30.2 inches. If then the weather becomes bad and the 
barometer rises much, (that is 0.05 to 0.10 inch,) it announces 
a blow or a very fresh breeze from this quarter. This is re- 
markable, for in all the other cases of very fresh winds, the 
barometer falls. 

If, Avith the winds from K. E. the mercury falls, the 
winds will turn to the eastward; if it continues to fall, it 
will turn to the S. E., to the S., and successively to the ]!Sr. 
W. Th^ barometer will then reach its minimum, with the 
ordinary winds from N. W. ; this is about 29.86 inches. But 
if, instead of falling gradually as we have said, it falls much 
and suddenly, with the wind at N. E., or at any intermedi- 
ate point between î^. E. and S., it is i^robable that there will 
be a sudden calm, and that the wind will fly quickly to the 
]Sr. W. However, if, after the mercury has descended grad- 
ually, it again rises with any intermediate wind, this wind, 
under these circumstances, will turn to the E. and N. E. 
and will remain in that quarter until another faU of the 
barometer. 

When the wind is N. W., if the mercury remains low, it 
may be expected that the wind will blow some time from 
this direction ; if the mercury rises it is a certain indication 
that the wind will turn to the N. ; and if the mercury con- 
tinues to rise, that it will approach to the N. E. ; but if it 
descends with the wind at N., the wind will return to the 
N. W. When the upward movement with the wind at K. 
* Observations made by S. C. Lees at Nassau. 



wiM)v? — Avi:sT ixi)n:s — .i.vmaica. 



SI 



\\ . IS liipid wild coiisick'rijble the wind will nor icnniin loîii;' 
at X., but will liMul to the N. E. 

I>iinn.<i- the suinincr months the winds vary tVoiii X. E. to 
S.; those wliich prevail blow between E. and S. The bai- 
ometer in tliis season varies 0.75 ineli above and below 30 
inelies; it is lii-her than this on the approach of winds from 
the X. E. and while it blows, and lower when the Avind is 
comino- from the southward and while it lasts. There is, 
however, a oeiu>ral light wind from the S., which blows in • 
the mornino- and evening and extends but a short distance 
from the land and resembles the land and sea breezes near 
the hirge islands; it produces no effect on the barometer. 

When in the months of hurricanes the barometer falls 
considerably and rapidly, bad weather should be expected 
and every precaution taken. If, for example, the barometer 
is at ;K).i; inches, and descends suddenly to 21).S inches, this 
fall should cause mistrust; and if it siiould tall below this 
point, there is nearly a certainty of soon having a gale. This 
fall of the barometer might, soinetimes, precede a hurricane 
l)y one or two hours only. 

At the Island of Jamaica the land and sea breezes are Jamaica. 
well established in the tine season ; the former extends as 
far as twelve miles from the coast, and they cease about 
4h. in the morning. The following observations have been 
made on the winds at this island: 



Mouths. 



•laimary . . . 
February . , 

March 

A pril 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . . 
Sipti^mber . 

« Htober 

November . 
December. . 



Wiuds. 



N. to S. E 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

--..do 

S.S.W 

S. S. W. andS. E. 

do 

-...do 

-...do 



Eeiiiarks ou the wind and weather. 



Fine; light rains ; strong winds from N. 
Fine and dry ; strong sea breezes. 

Do. 
Very dry ; moderate lireize.s. 
Fine ; showers. 
Fine generally ; heavy rains. 
Much rain : fine generally i:i the intervals. 
Some hea"vy rains. 

Fine moi-uiugs ; much rain afternoon. 
Heavy rains at intervals ; generally fine. 

Do. 
Little rain : generally fine. 



The winds in the Island of Santo Domingo or Hayti vary 
according to the different parts of the coast where they 
blow. The winter continues from the end of April to Xo- 
vember. In this season gusts and storms are frequent; at 
the same period strong S. E. winds are experienced in the 
(Î A o 



Santo Domingo. 



82 



WINDS— WEST INDIES^ PORTO RICO. 



Poi'to Eico. 



"Windward 
Islands. 



Bay of Gouaives, aud in tlie Cliauiiel of St. Marc. Iii No- 
vember, December, January, aud February, the winds from 
N. variable to îsT. W., blow with force, principally on the 
northern coast of the island. On the southern coast, fre- 
quent storms occur in June, July, and August, in which the 
winds come from the S., aud are violent i)rincipally from 
that direction. 

On the entire coast of this island the land and sea breezes 
blow; their direction varies according to the trending of the 
land. The sea breeze commences at from 8 to 9 a. m., in- 
creases until midday, or 4 p. m., when it diminishes and 
gives place to the land breeze, wliich lasts until 4 or 6 in 
the morning. 

At Porto Eico the rains fall from June to August. The 
trade-winds are from N. E. The sea breeze commences at 
8 a. m., and lasts until 4 in the evening, when it gives i)lace 
to the land breeze. On the coast of this island the land 
breeze, while it lasts, is very weak, and it cannot be counted 
on. 

The following observations made at Trinidad and at Do- 
minica will give a general idea of the winds met with in 
the Windward Islands, as also their climate. The first table 
is for the Island of Trinidad : 



Months. 


Winds. 


Observations on wind and weatber. 


Jaun.ary 


E., E. N. E., and E. S. E . . 

E.andE.Î^.E 

....do 


Cloudy ; rain. 
Cloudy ; heavy dews. 
Fine ; dry. 






E.N.E 

S. E., E. IS^". E 

E.N.E.,E.S.E 

E.N.E 

E. S. E 


May 


Strong breezes ; thunder. 
Eainy ; breezes variable, iu force. 
Subject to tempests, rains, andstornis. 
Wind in squalls ; rain and storms. 
Heavy rains ; storms. 


Jnly 






do 




-do 




E. and E.N. E 

. do 


Eine ; occasionally warTH. 
Cold. 











. 



\V1M)S — t'OAST OF llOiNDl'llAS, J'/J'C. 83 

The iolloAviug table is lor the Island of Dominica : 



Montlis. 


Winds. 


Observations on wind and weather. 




E. N. K. aiKlN 


Clondv. 


I'Vbniarv 


E. N. E. ami S. E 

N. E. to S. E 


CV.ld. 

Fine; sonietinios cloudy. 

Eine ; niodei'ato breezes. 




E. N. E., S. E., S 

N. E. to S. E. auil E 

S.E., E.toN. E 

...do 




Calm ; weather clear. 


Juno 

July 


Calm ; fogs and rains. 




S E and N. K 




Sejitember 


S. ami S. E 

N.E.toS.E 

do 


gust.s. 
Generally tine, rain at inter^-al.s. 
Cloudy and fine alternately. 
Fine and dry. 
Fine, dry, and eold. 






do .. .. 







We will now tnke up again the coast from Cape Catoche 
and coutinne it to the sontlnvard. 

On the coast east of Yucatan, and upon that of Hondu- ^^^^^ ^'^ verf 
ras and 3ros(|uito, which form the western boundary of the ^'^î',^o,°/"''^'1' 

i ' •' and the Mosqui- 

basin of the Caribbean Sea, theN. E. trade- winds blow from to coast. 
April to September. They are sometimes interrupted, and 
especially in the tirst two months, by winds from the W. 
In June and Jidy the winds on this coast vary from E. to 
W. by the S., bringing frequent rain-squalls and calms. Au- 
gust and September are the pleasantest months, the winds 
are "moderate from the sea, interrupted by variable winds. 
In Octol)er, îfovember, December, and January, they blow 
from S. to N., hauling by the W., with gusts from the W. 
S. ^V. to the W. î^. W., variable to the N. * 

On the coast between San Juan de î>ficaragna and Cape j^^aïf de^^Mcfr:!^ 
de la Vela the winds are very variable, f From January to suatoCape deia 

»' '■ Vela. 

June they are from N. E. to E. ; in May and in June they 
are, however, frequently interrupted by tornadoes. Between 
the months of July and December, but principally in Jnly 
and August, there are winds from the W., very uncertain 
and quite light; they blow at times seven or eight days, 

"" We would observe tliat the people of the country call several wiuihs, 
wiuds from the N., with little reference to the quarter from which 
they blow. Their nomenclature of winds is : land breeze, sea breeze, 
and north wind. That which the iuliabitants call a dry north wind, is 
a wind from the W., violent, with clear weather; a wind from the 
W., moderate, is called a little norther. 

t Dampier. 



84 



WINDS — COAST OF GRANADA, ETC. 



Puerto Belle. 



Cartliaaeua. 



Coast of Caracas 
aud Cumana. 



when the î^. E. winds return ; the winds from W., however^ 
predominate in this season. When the winds from W. blow 
on this coast with more force and for a longer time, the trade- 
wind from the eastward prevails at large, as in the other 
seasons. It is found too within twenty-four to thirty miles 
of Cape de la Vela, even when the wind from W. blows 
on the coast in the vicinity of the cape. 

At Puerto Bello, and between this point and Carthagena, 
the wind is jS". E. from the 15th of November to the 15th of 
May. At the end of May it turns to the S. W. and to the 
W. S. W., and extends to the parallel of 12° N. latitude. 
These winds from S. W. aud W. S. W. are, at times, strong 
and bring rain. At sixty miles in the offing from Puerto Bello 
the winds wdiich blow from the southern quarter in the bight 
of the gulf change to the X. E. The winds from the S. ex- 
tend generally twenty-four to twenty-seven miles from the 
coast. The winds from the S. W. to W. S. W. are called 
■vendavales. 

In general, at Carthagena, tiie winds are N. E. from the 
middle of December to the end of April; this is the fine 
season. During the winter, from May to November, there 
are continual rains and storms. In the summer season the 
N. E. trade-winds commence to be establivshed about the 
15th of November. In the winter season the winds blow 
from S. W. to W. S. W., extending as for as the parallel of 
12° N. latitude, beyond which the winds are from N. E.- 

In November and December there are strong breezes, 
with much rain.* On all this coast, during the winter, tor- 
nadoes often occur. 

The trade-winds have their ordinarj^ course on the coasts 
of Caracas and Cumana, as far as Cape de la Vela 5 but 
from that cape to Point San Bias, their direction varies from 
N. E. to N. N. E. In the months of March, April, May, 
and June, they are more regular, blowing from E. N. E. ; 
they are then very strong. These strong breezes extend 
from the middle of the channel to within six or nine miles 
of the land, and lose their intensity as they approach it. 

On these two coasts, and even as far as the Gulf of Nica- 
ragua, from July to December, and, at times, to January, 
winds from the W. with rain are experienced, called venda- 
vales, of which we have already spoken. 



"Malham. 



WINDS — (JUIANA. 



8.") 



Oil IIk' roust of (iiiiiiiia the tiadc-wiiuls from N. N. E. to f^^ast of Gui 

ana. 

K. X. K. blow from No\ ember to i\Iay ; in April, May, and 
.lune tliere are variable winds and ealms; then tlie winds 
elian.uc to K. H. K. and S. K., and blow especially from S. 
\']. from rl line to Deeember. The rainy season lasts from Dc- 
eember to .Tune. ])iirini:>' the dry season there are freqnent 
showers and violent squalls. 

The following' table is a summary of observations made 
on the winds at Demerara: 



:\!(intlis. 



January . 

I<Vbruai\ 



Manli 
April . 
Mav . - 



June 

July 

August . . . 
September 
October . . . 
November 
December. 



Wiiiils 



E... 

X. E 



E. K. E. 

E 

N. E . . . 



S. and variable . 

KaiidS 

S 

S. and E 

Variable 

N. and E 

N. X. E 



Keinai'k.s on tbe winds and -vveatlier. 



Cold ; fresh breezes. 

Heavy clouds, with showers; weather 
gloomy. 

Heavy clouds ; very frequent showers. 

Hot ; no rain. 

Heavy clouds ; weather dull ; frequent light- 
ning ; rain. 

Hot ; rain at intervals. 

Hot and oppressive. 

Hot ; rain at intervals. 

Heat ; thunder and lightning. 

Fresh breezes ; light showers. 

Fine breezes ; light showers. 

Heavy rains ; strong breezes ; cold. 



On the coast of French Guiana, according to Commander French Gui- 
Ijartigue, the winter commences in November and ends in' 
July, the dry season being from Jnly to November, The 
winds from E. X. E. blow during the lirst period, those from 
E. S. E. during the second. The season of heavy rain is 
from December to Febrnary, prolonged, at times, until 
March, and sometimes commencing about the 15th of No- 
vember. 

In March and April there is an interval of three weeks or 
a mouth, during which the rains cease. This period in 
French Guiana is called Vété de mars; they recommence 
falling about the middle of April, and terminate toward the 
middle of July. The period during which the heavy raius 
of May fall is called la poussinièn'. 

From November to March the winds are from N. N. E. to 
N. E. ; during Marchand April they vary from E. toS.; 
from May to July they return to the N. E. ; calms then arc 
rare, and there is no land or sea breeze.* 

* Conimanilaiit Lartigue, Instructions sur la Guiane. 



86 WIx\DS — NORTH COAST OF BRAZIL. 

It lias been remarked at Guiana that the winds from E. 
to S. are the least rainy.* 
North coast of On theiiortli coast of Brazil, as far as Cape St. Eoque, the 
prevailing winds are from the IST. E. to the S, B., shifting by 
the E. From July to December the winds from S. E. to E. 
prevail; from December to July those from the IS". E. to E. 
The month of June is the epoch of the change of these 
periodic winds, and in this month, near the land, frequent 
calms are experienced, interrupted by squalls, which, at 
times, bring wind, always heavy rain. The heaviest sqnalls 
are those which blow from E. to In. E. 

On this coast, at a short distance from the land, there are 

frequently during the night and morning land breezes 

varying from S. S. E. to S., which cease toward 8 or 9 a. m. 

Winds aud sea- At Para the year is divided into two seasons, the rainy 

sons at Para. • j_ '^ ±t i rm j? 

season or winter, the dry season or summer. The season ot 
rains commences ordinarily in January and ends in June; 
the dry season continues from July to December. During 
the intervening months the weather is very variable, and 
partakes of the character of both seasons. 

During the winter the prevailing wind is only experienced 
at long intei^vals. At this period there are long calms, in- 
terrupted by sudden squalls from ]!«[. E. to S. W., shifting 
by the W., which are almost of daily occurrence in the 
river; they are accompanied by torrents of rain. In gene- 
ral the rain in this season commences to fall about 11 a. m., 
and lasts often until 10 to 11 p. m. During the remainder 
of the night and morning the weather is good. During the 
dry season the winds are constant from the eastward ; they 
are moderate in the months of July and August, and very 
fresh during the other months. 

The squall named grain du Fara takes place then most 
frequently after noon, toward 2 or 3 o'clock. 

During the summer it is rare that the wind varies more 
from the E. than from E. N. E. and E. S, E. These winds 
at the entrance of the river Para are in general veryf resh , 
and they continue always fresh as far as the Bay of SoL 
During the night they moderate in the upper part of the 
river and do not regain their force before the middle of the 
forenoon. 
Winds and sea- At Marauham, according to Commandant Montravel, the 

sons at Marau- n ■ ; ,i -i r. tt-k i j- 

ham. season ot rains commences at the end oi December or at 

* Commandaut Lartiaue, Instructions sur la Guiane. 



\VIM)S — CdASI' Ol' lîKAZIl.. S7 

the boji'iniiiiig' of January, and coiitiiim's to Juue or «Inly. 
Diuiiis' this season the rain falls in torrents, the squalls are 
tV('(|U('iit and very stronj;-. Tlio winds often shift round the 
compass in twenty-four hours; the most fre<iuent winds 
are those from E. X. E. and X. E., varying at times to N., to 
the X. W., W., and the S. W.; in tliis case, there are squalls 
divided by intervals of calm or light variable winds. Jt 
rains less, however, at Maranham than at Para, and it is 
by no means rare, even in this season to have some line 
days and several days in succession of passable weather. 

The dry season lasts from July to December. During 
this period there is generally a fresh breeze varying from 
N. E. to E. X. E., and sometimes as far as E. S. E. If it 
rains it is only by squalls. Erom September to November 
the winds are generally strong ; they moderate after sun- 
set and recommence in the forenoon. During this season 
there is frequently much liglituing during the evening, but 
seldom thunder. About the month of July the seasons 
change. The sea is very rough in the dry season on the 
coast and in the Bay of San ]\Iarcos. 

On the east coast of Brazil, the winds are periodical. East coast rf 

Brazil. 

Erom September to March, they blow from the E. X. E. to 
the N . E.; from ]March to September, they blow from S. S. E. 
to E. S. E., these winds do not extend more than one hun- 
dred and twenty to one hundred and fifty miles from the 
coast. Beyond this limit, the trade-wind prevails and 
blows oftenest from S. E. by E. At this limit, however, 
the winds are found variable from S. S. W. to the S. E., 
with rains and storms. 

On the north part of this coast principally there is much 
rain and variable winds; in March and k^eptember, the pe- 
riod of the change of the periodic winds, heavy aiid sudden 
squalls occur. 

The monsoons which we have spoken of on the east coast Remarks on the . 
of Brazil are far from being regular, as might be believed '^°"''°°"' 
from the rule we have given. On this subject we will cite 
the opinion of Admiral Roussin given in the Filote du 
Hr l'ail. 

''After observations made during a hundred and thirteen 
days of the S. E. monsoon, there were but thirty-five days 
in which the winds were from S. to E., that is, those which 
might have been expected in that season, from the generally 



88 WINDS— COAST OF BRAZIL. 

received opiiiiou ; (liiriiio- Lhirty-eight days tîie winds were 
froui IsT. variable to tlie E., which would seem to belong to 
the opposite monsoon ; aud lastly there were sixteen days 
of winds from IST. to W., and twenty-three days they were 
from W. to S. Daring a hundred and fifty-three days of 
the N. E. monsoon, the winds were for seventy-five days 
from S. to E.; seven days from N. to W.; six and one-half 
days from S, to W.; and only sixty-two days from N. to E., 
which, from the general opinion, should have been the wind 
of this season 5 the remaining days were calm. These facts 
prove that the two monsoons of Brazil are not regularly 
evStablished. 

"In this variety, certain special winds are distinguished, 
some accidental, the others periodical, which appear to be 
connected to some spontaneous phenomena, or to belong 
to certain localities. 

Accidental ''In the first rank should be placed the sudden storms 
from S. W,, Avhicli blow frequently during the rainy season 
at the epoch of the full and change ; these are called los 
rehojos, they last three or four days, moderate, they are ac- 
companied by rain, aud they acquire force when the sky is 
clear. 

" The other accidental winds are a species of rain squalls ; 
they are met with principally about the Abrolhos, when the 
season is very rainy. These rain squalls are frequent in the 
mouths of May, June, Jul}', and August, and blow from the 
E. S. E. ; they come from round, white clouds, having little 
appearance of wind, but burst with a force which makes it 
necessary to mistrust them. 

Land breeze. "The land breczc is regular on the coast of Brazil, and 
blows most everv night throughout the year. It prevails 
on all poihts of the coast, from the Island of St. Catherine 
to Maranham, but has more or less strength and regularity 
according to the season and locality. The nearer the Equa- 
tor is approached, the more it is distinctly established. At 
Rio Janeiro it is nearly daily, and seldom fails to blow 
about 9 in the evening, and does not die out entirely until 
the following morning. It is the same at Espiritu Santo, 
Porto Seguro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and other places simi- 
larly situated. 

" In the X. E, monsoon the land breezes are more regular 
than in the other monsoon : they are also stronger, for then 
the wind from the ofRng blowing on the coast more di- 



UIXDS — t'DA^r Ol" I!K.\Z1I.. SO 

rOL'tly and more constaiitlN . Ihc icactitui caiisrd by llic 
iVoslnu's^s of tlic iii^Iit ou the laud makos tlieiu stioiiiicr 
and more roi^idar. 

■■• Diniiiii' the S. I"]. inoiisotDi ihc winds ;u<' often \arial)le 
fi'oni S. and tlie S. W. ; the hind biH'czes are eonfouiKU'd with 
them, and are not distini;nished from tliem. 

"The sti'on.ii'er tlu' sea breeze 1ms Vieen, the stroni;er will 
be the breeze from the land; ships can thus, almost always, 
leave the ports of Brazil on a tixed day." 

In the lîav of All vSaints, (Todos os Santos.) the winds I'.iiy oi ah 
are E. N. E. from Septend)er to A})ril ; from ^V'pril to Au- 
gust they blow from the southern (juarter with violence, 
varying from S. E. to S. S. W. In April they commence to 
change to the S. and S. S. W. ; their greatest force is in 
May, June, July, and August. During these months they 
blow from S. E., varying by the S. to S. S. W, The seasons 
change in April and September; the wet season commences 
in April in this bay, as upon the coast of Brazil; the fine 
weather returns in Sei)tember. 

At Itio Janeiro, the sea breeze which Idows from the E., Rio Janeiro. 
commences in the oftiug about 11 a. m.; it does not arrive in 
the harbor and city until from 2 to 3 p. m., although the 
city is but nine miles from the sea. The sea breeze contin- 
ues until sunset; the land breeze commences in the evening 
and lasts until morning; its duration and force de])end, 
besides, on the season. 

On the coast of Paraguay, the sea breeze sets in at 1) or Paiaguay. 
10 a. m., and continues until sunset. 

We borrow frou) ('a[)tain Chiron du Brossay, who was a Riotioiariata. 
long time in the Bio de la l'îata, the following observations 
on the winds of this river and the places in its vicinity: * 

"The winds in La Plata and at its mouth follow the sea- 
sons, but the configuration and proximity of the land ex- 
ercise so great an influence on tlu'ir force and direction, that 
they are hardly ever the same at the mouth as at th i 
terior of the river; this is also sometimes the case on the 
two shores of tlie riv^er; it is iioted that a violent blow at 
Buenos Ayres was not felt on the north shore of the river. 

"Xearlyall the pilots attribute a great influence to the 
phases of the moon; they also agree in saying that it is 
very difficult to foretell the weather with any degree of cer- 

* Lifftnictions Nautique sur VAttercuje et In Xaiirjation de La Flata. (An- 
uulcs maritimes, 1845.) 



90 WINDS — COAST OF PARAGUAY. 

tainty, so much is the atmosphere subject to suddeu varia- 
tions vrhich baffle all predictions. The storms form and 
burst so suddenly and with so great violence that it is 
always necessary to be prepared. Examples are cited of 
very violent pamperos coming up during clear weather, a»- 
nounced only by a curling clond. They do not come up m 
this manner excepting with the wind îsT. W. and W. 

"In the country the wind from S. W. is c^Wed pampero ; 
it is announced, generally, by heavy black clouds w^bicli 
seem to roll one upon the other ; at other times an immense 
black arch covers the sky from the west to the east ; soon 
the horizon clears to the S. W., then the pampero bursts 
with an impetuosity, of which an idea can hardly be formed , 
Often it is accompanied by lightning, thunder, and raiu^ the 
temperature falls to a point so low as to render it uncom- 
fortable. The sky soon clears, and remains so while the 
pampero lasts. 

"Nearly always, in moderating, the wind hauls to S. and 
S. B. Before the pampero bursts the barometer shows a 
great depression; the mercury commences to rise at the end 
of the gale, or when the wind hauls to the S. 

"In La Plata and at sea, on the same i>arallel, the winds 
are very variable ; clear of the land, in the ]ileasant season, 
from September to March, the prevailing wind is from 'M. 
E. ; the horizon is charged with vapors and the sky dotted 
with rounded, irregularly formed clouds. 

" In approaching the river the wind hauls to the E., some- 
times to S. E., fresh with rain or cloudy weather. 

"In the river, during the season, the wind from S. E. 
blows quite regularly and with force in the afternoon ; at 
night it falls and goes to the IST.; this breeze is called vira- 
zon ; when it fails and the wind from N. to N. W. continwes, 
before the virazon is re-established, a sudden storm from 
the S. W. (a pampero) may be expected, more or less strong. 
We repeat that every precaution should be taken against 
being surprised by these sudden pamperos. 

" Near the time of new and full moon there are frequeatly 
fresh breezes from S. E., with rain ; sometimes also the 
wind blows from the N., but with less strength than from 
the S. E., and the temperature is higher. 

" The pilots pretend that the wind from S. E. blows when 
the declination of the moon is south, and those froju the N. 
when her declination is north. Under these circumstances 



WINDS — COAST OF PAKAOUAV. î)l 

the wind from N. .noes iiu)st always to tlic N. E., if it is dry; 
if it is aocomi)aiiir<l by rain or heavy dew it liauls to N. 
AV.: ofreii it lu'c-oiues very strong" and blows in S(inalls from 
this direction, and linishes by s'oinii" to the S. W. very fresh ; 
witli this wind the sea rises very qnick and falls as qniekly 
wlien it ceases. 

" From March to September the most fre«iuent winds at 
the entrance of La Plata are from W. to S. W.; goin^ up 
the river they are more frequently to the ]S". than to the S. 

of A^^ 

" In the road of Buenos Ayres the winter season is prefer- 
able to that of summer, for the wind beini;' j^enerally from 
S. AV. to X. W. the sea is smooth and communication easier. 

'• In the mouths of July, August, and September there is 
frequently thick fog, especially from the mouth of the river 
as far as the Ortiz Bank; more inside it is less frequent. 

The inhabitants of La Plata attribute noxious influences to 
the X. wind ; it is in effect warmer, and while it blows 
the atnu^sphere is charged with electricity; the wind from 
this quarter ends, most always, by a storm, in Avhich 
the wind goes to the S. W, and re-establishes the equilib- 
rium. 

"Sometimes the pamperos extend to seji and pass the 
latitude of the Island of St. Catherine. 

" When they are clear they last longer than when they 
commence with a clouded sky. 

"■ The description which has been given of the winds in 
the oflûng, at the entrance, and in the Eio de la Plata, is as 
they are generally found; it would l)e hy no means suri>ris- 
iug to find them different, for the wind is so variable that 
neither its directiou or its eudurance can be relied on ; 
often for many years in succession, in the same season, the 
winds are extremely difterent." 

The vessels leaving the Athintic destined for any port in Kast .toast of 
the Pacitic Ocean will lind it to their advantage to keep 
within less thau one hundred miles of the east coast of 
Patagonia, as much to avoid the heavy sea, raised by the 
westerly winds which i)revail to the eastward, and are 
stronger as you recede from the coast, as to protit by the 
irregularit}' of the wind ; when it is from the western quarter, 
near the coast, from the month of April to September, when 
the sun is in north declination, the winds keep more between 
AV. IS". AA". and X. N. AA^ than at any other point; the winds 



92 WI]N'DS — COAST OF PATAGONIA. 

from E. are rare; but Avhen they do occur, as tliey blow 
obliquel}" upon the coast, tliere is no risk run of being- 
driven too near tbe land. In the opposite season, when the 
sun is in his southern declination, the winds are from S, to 
W., and are often very strong; but as the coast is to wind- 
ward the sea falls immediately with the wind. Although 
at this season the winds are of a nature to impede the pro- 
gress of a vessel, still they are rarely fixed and frequently 
vary six or eight ])oints in the space of a few hours ; from 
this circumstance an advantage is gained in being near the 
coast.* 
T i e r r a del Fogs are extremely rare on the coast of Tierra del Fuego, 

Pnego. o J o 7 

but the weather is nearly always dull and rainy, accom- 
panied by violent winds; the sun is seldom seen; the sky, 
even in good weather, is covered with clouds and it is seldom 
clear. 

The winds succeed each other at short intervals and last 
several days; sometimes the weather is good for ])erhaps 
two weeks, but this is a rare occurence.* 

In the localities of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn the 
months of the equinoxes are the worst, the winds are then 
very heavy, though it does not always blow on the days of 
the equinox. 

The months of August, September, October, and jSTovem- 
ber are, in general, the worst months of the year. In these 
months the winds from W. prevail, v.ith rain, snow^, and 
hail, and the cold is intense. 

December, January, and Febiuary are the waimest 
months, the days are long, and the weather sometimes good, 
but in these months the westerly winds, at times very vio- 
lent and accomi:)anied by much rain, are the prevailing 
winds ; thus the summer in these localities only affords the 
advantage of long days with a less rigorous temperature. 
March is subject to tempests, and it is perhaps the worst 
month of the year on account of the sudden storms which 
then occur. It is less rainy, however, than the summer 
months. 
i]i?'*Atfauti?°to -'■^ April, May, and June, there is frequently good 
the Pacific Ocean, weather, and though the days grow shorter in this period, 
it resembles more the summer than any other epoch of the 
year ; bad weather is, however, experienced in these months, 

" Directions for the Coast of Patagonia, by Captain King. 



WiXDS — TIKKUA DHL l-'lEiiO. îl.'i 

but tlie winds from E., wliicli arc tVctnu'iit, briiii;- with them 
line «hiys wliieh can be relied on. June and ,Inly are very 
sitnilar, except that in July the winds from 1']. are more fre- 
([ucnt. The short days and the extreme cold render these 
months very disagreeable, though they are perhaps the 
most favorable for going from the Atlantic to the l*acitic 
Ocean, as the winds blow oftener from the K. 

The months of sumunn', December and January, are, ou P^sage from 

' . the Pacific to tho 

the contrary, the best for the passage from the Paci tic to Atlantic Ocean. 
rhe Atlantic Ocean, though this passage is so short and 
easy that it nmy be made at any season. 

In these localities, thunder and lightning are little known. 
X'iolent s(iualls come from S. and S. AV., which are announced 
by masses of clouds ; they are at times accompanied by 
snow and very large hail, which mak'es them more form- 
idalde. 

We will now make some important reuuirks on the course 
of the winds. 

The westerly winds prevail during the great part of the 
> ear in these localities and in the vicinity of Cape Horn. 
Those from the E. generally blow only occasionally in the 
winter months ; they are at times very violent in this season 
and are rare during the summer. 

The winds from E. alw\ays commence light with clear wi'u's from k. 
weather, and gradually increase. The weather then 
changes and the wind becomes at times very fresh; most 
frequently they attain about the force of a three-reef-top- 
sail breeze, and either gradually die out or fly to another 
qua ter. 

The winds from the northern quarter commence nioder- w^hkIs from k 
ately, but the weather is more overcast and the sky more 
charged with clouds than with the wind from the E., 
and a light rain generally falls. As it freshens, it hauls 
successively tow^ards theW. and increases in force, blowing 
between K. and X AV. 

The sky is then covered with heavy clouds and the rain falls 
abundantly. At the N. W. the wind blows with violence, 
and when its fury is spent, (which requires twelve to fifteen 
hours,) or even when it is still blowing quite fresh from this 
quarter, it shifts suddenly to the S. W. and blows with 
more violence than before; this wind dispels the clouds and 
in a few" hours it becomes perfectly clear ; iu the mean time 

ere are at intervals very heavy squalls. The ^Yind remains 



04 WINDS — TIERRA DEL FUEGO. 

several days iii tiie S. W. quarter, generally ^'ery strong, 
when it moderates little by little, and two or three days of 
good weather follow. 

The winds from the N. blow generally during the sum- 
mer, and it is a fact based on experience, that all the 
changes or shifts of wind from IST. to S. take place by the 
W. in this season, which would merit little its name, if the 
days were not longer and the atmosphere a little milder. 
The wind and the rain much exceed those of the shorter 
days. It should be remembered that the bad weather never 
comes suddenly from the E. and that a vvind from S. W. or 
S. never shifts suddenly to the iST.; on the contrary, the 
winds from S. and S. W. come up suddenly and with vio- 
lence. 
Fiesh winds The wiuds from S. and the squalls from S. W. are pre- 
ceded and accompanied by clouds flying very low ; the sky 
is obscured and other clouds at a great height appear above 
the first; the sun is hardly visible through them and pre- 
sents a reddish aspect. 

Some hours and even a day before a wind from the E". or 
]!^. W., the altitude of the sun cannot be taken, although it 
is visible, on account of the haze in the upper atmosphere 
preventing its disk being sufficiently defined. 

Sometimes, but seldom with a light breeze varying from 
N. jST. W. to ]Sr. 'N. E., there are some days of good weather. 
yaikLiufiisi'ds. y^e will terminate our remarks on the winds of the Atlantic 
Ocean with those of the Falkland Islands. 

-It would be difficult to find a region more exposed to 
tempests, winter and summer, than these islands. 
* The winds are very variable, rarely moderate, as long as 

the sun is above the horizon, and at times very violent even 
during the summer ; a day of calm is extraordinary. 

Usuall}^, it blows less during the night than in the day ; 
however, neither by night nor by day or at any period, of the 
year is there any security against sudden and. violent squalls 
or a heavy gale, though, generally, it lasts but a few hours. 
The prevailing direction of the wind is W., the gales gen- 
erally commence at the N. W., and shift quickly to the 
S. W. by the W, It is observed that when a wind from 
N. W. is accompanied by rain it very soon goes to the S. W., 
and blows very strong from this quarter. The winds from 
N. bring cloudy weather, and when they are light are often 
.accompanied, by a thick fog. It is also remarked that they 



^V1^1)S — FALKLAND ISLANDS. î).") 

blow, gonenilly, uioie about the tiiaeof the lull and chaîi.uc. 
Till», winds iioiu N. K. and N. brinj;' very dismal woatlier 
with much rain; sonu'tinit's they are strong and hold to the 
X. 2Sr. K., but most freciuently they turn in hauliiiii' to the 
W. 

The winds from S. E. also brin.i»- rain; they blow with 
Ibrci?, but are not tVecinent; as they increase they haul to- 
ward the S. 

Durin.ii' the winter tiie wiiuls are pri!n.*ipally t'roni N. W., 
iiml in summer most lre(iuently from S. W. 

Although there are fogs sometimes with light breezes 
from the E. or N., they do not often continue longer than a 
day. The gales of wind, as also the squalls, are more snd- 
den and stronger from the southern quarter, between S. W. 
and S. E.jthan when they come from any other direction. 

The winds from E. rarely last long; they bring, in general, 
pleasant weather. They can be exi^ected in April, May, 
June, and July more than at any other period. There are, 
though seldom, intervals of good weather, with the winds 
A-ariable from E. S. E. to E. N. E. Thunder and lightning 
seldom occur, and when the latter is seen a wind from the 
E. may be expected. If there is lightning in the S, E., and 
at the same time the barometer is low, a heavy blow may 
be expected from this quartei". 

Gales from the S. E. and S. last longer than those from 
W,, generally, and they raise an enormous sea on the south- 
ern coast of these islands. 

In the winter there are generally less violent winds than 
in the summer. J)uring this season the weather, though 
-colder, is more settled and more dry. Every important 
change in the weather is announced by the barometer to 
those who consult it frequently, however little they nmy 
understand the oscillations of this instrument.* 

Such are the general observations on the winds at the 
different points of the basin of the Atlaidic. We will finish 
this chapter with some general remarks, useful to mariners, 
borrowed, in part, from Horsburgli's India Directory. 

Three hinds of squalls are distinguished : arched, descend- s luaii 
ing, and white squalls. 

Arched squalls are very frequent; generally they rise 
above the horizon, forming an arch, (as in tornadoes;) often 

* Xiudkal Directions for the Falkland Islands, by Captaiu Sullivan. 



96 WINDS — St2ITALLS. 

the}' have the shape of a heavy black cloud, particularly 
wheu they are charged with much raiu or are accompanied 
by much electricity. These squalls sometimes rise with 
great rapidity, giving barely the necessary time to reduce 
sail before the wind is felt, which takes x>hice when the 
cloud approaches the zenith. At other times this cloud 
moves slowly and divides without the cloud acquiring suffi- 
cient force to reach the ship. It can be regarded, as a gen- 
eral rule, that when the squalls commence with raiîi a sharp 
gust will soon follow 5 but if the wind is felt first they are 
seldom violent, and the squall ends with a light rain. Local 
circumstances, however, destroy this general rule, as in the 
tornadoes the contrary takes place, as has been already re- 
marked. 

Descending squalls are not so easily recognized as the 
former, as they i^roceed from clouds formed near the ob- 
server in the lower portion of the atmosphere ; they are gen- 
erally charged with rain and sharj) gusts of wind. In the 
Gulf of Mexico these squalls are frequent. 

White squalls are quite rare ; they are, however, some- 
times met with in the tropics and their vicinity, especially 
near high land; they are most frequently violent, and of 
short duration. They take place with a clear skj^ and with 
nothing in the atmosphere to signal their approach, which 
renders them very dangerous. The only indication of their 
approach is the white broken water on the surface of the 
sea raised by the violence of the wind, 

Squalls as well as tempests are sometimes progressive, at 
others regressive ; when they are arrested bj- an opposite 
wind there is then a strife and their route depends on the 
position of the most rarefied point of the atmosphere. 

When a squall meets an opposing wind it is retarded in 
its course, and it frequently happens that one ship passes 
the squall and overtakes others that are within the limit 
of this opposing wind. 

When strong winds are arrested by those from an oppo- 
site direction they are generally preceded by a heavy swell, 
which extends a great way before them. 

Very black clouds, mixed with light clouds and fragments 
of black clouds below the others, having a rapid move- 
ment, accompanied sometimes by lightning and distant 
thunder, are the forerunners of a smart squall. Light clouds,^ 
without any definite form, tlie borders of which it is almost 



AviNDS — bako:mktkk. î»7 

impossible to dotermiiio, give, ordinarily, ruin and a little 
■wind.* 

AVe are not here s[)eakin!ii' of the gales and squalls, which 
we have already iudieated Avhen occupied with the locali- 
ties where they occur. 

Gales of wind fre(iueutly raise a sea very formidable to 
small vessels, and eveu for large ones. Small vessels, for 
their greater security, cau use a drag, a method made use 
of by many captains and practiced by ourselves. This float, 
or drag, should be large enough to present suflicient resist- 
ance, and be immersed to a certain depth. A hawser should 
be made fast to the float and brought in forward, as low" 
down as possible, veer the hawser, furl all sail, except a 
storm mizen, and x>oint the yards to the wind. In this man- 
ner a vessel will keep head to sea, as if at anchor. For 
small vessels this method of riding out a gale is much safer 
than running before a heavy sea. This system is, in reality, 
but a floating anchor. In every case where a small vessel 
scuds in a gale of wind it is well to avoid the heavy seas, 
to reduce her headway, so as not to add the velocity of the 
impulsion of the waves to that of the ship. As Owen ob- 
serves, a hawser may be veered out and allowed to float 
astern. He remarks that he has seen a hawser thus used 
divide the wave and prevent its breaking over the stern of 
the vessel. 

The marine Ijarometer is a most useful instrument, espe- Marine 
cially in high latitudes, where it indicates the advance of a ^^*^^' 
gale. Before a storm there is generally a sensible fall of the 
level of the mercury. It is the same in the tropics when 
threatened with a hurricane. In low latitudes, generally 
the squalls which pass quickly have little efifect on the bar- 
ometer, and sometimes this instrument is not affected dur- 
ing these squalls. Within the tropics a marked fall of the 
barometer is only caused by the approach of a strong gale, 
and not always then, ])elow 14° or 15° latitude. 

In high latitudes, the movements of the mercurial column 
of the barometer are, as the winds, excessively variable. 
The mercury falls, in general, much before a storm, and 
rises before it is finished, sometimes even before the storm 
is felt, in proportion as the equilibrium of the atmosphere 
is re-established. 

* Voyage of tbe Bea;)h; vol. ii, p. 49. 
7 A O 



98 WINDS — ^ISOMETES . 

The mercury lalls also considerably on the api:>roach of a 
heavy rain. When the mercury is low the air is light and 
wanting in elasticity. It falls still lower when a storm 
threatens. 

When the wetither is tine and settled the mercury has a 
tendency to rise. This is also the case in severe cold. At 
sea the barometer generally rises with easterly winds and 
falls with those from the westward. It rises in the northern 
hemisphere with the wind from IST. and falls with those from 
S. On the other hand, in the southern hemisphere it falls 
with northerly and rises with southerly winds. The oscil- 
lations of the barometer can be observed with more profit 
at sea than near the land, where the rarefaction and dila- 
tion of the air make its variations more irregular than in 
the open sea. Following a calm or extraordinary heat, par- 
ticularly in winter, gales of wind are experienced, and this 
happens most generally W'hen the temperature of the atmos- 
phere is much elevated above its mean. 
Atmospheric It Is propcr to obscrvc, that in the open ocean, between 
the tropics, in settled weather, there is a flux and reflux in 
the atmosphere twice every twenty-four hours, resembling 
the tides of the sea; but these atmospheric tides depend 
upon the sun's influence and the rotation of the earth, and 
do not follow the motion of the moon. The rise and fall of 
the mercury in consequence of these tides is about six or 
seven hundredths of an inch in settled weather near the 
Equator, the high station happening about 11 a. m., and the 
lower about 5 a. m. and 5 p. m. The regailarity of this flux 
and reflux of the atmosphere is obstructed by land, but in 
the ocean it prevails to 26° X. and S., and in fine steady 
weather it may be perceived as far as 30° or 32° ivT. or S.* 
îTote by the Although in the General Examination of tlie Facific Ocean 
Captain DeKerhallet has discussed the winds, &c., of the 
Straits of Magellan, this route has been so much more fre- 
quented, and so much information regarding it collected of 
late years, that the translator has considered it desirable 
to introduce here an account of the winds, &c., in these 
straits, taken from the report of Captain Eichard C. Mayne, 
C. B., commanding her Majesty's ship j^assau, (1868.) What 
has already been said, however, of the winds of Tierra del 
Fuego, will likewise apply to all the territory of Magellan: 

" Horsiurgh's India Director j. 



WINDS — STKAIT 0¥ MAOHLLAN. 99 

" W'osteily winds are tlio most prevalent tliiou.i;liout tlic winds, 
year, and at the eastern end of the strait there is û'enerally 

St rait of AI ago 

a stron.n' breeze with heavy sqnalls between X. W. and S. W.ian 
A elondy, overcast sky, and probably rain, while the wind is 
northward of W. : aiul usually clear bright weather, with 
the sun out, when the wind draws southward of W. The 
i;eneral course of the wind seems to commence at X. E. or 
X,, with misty weather or rain, veering quickly to X. W. 
and freshening- while the barometer fjxlls. Between X. 
and W. it frequently remains two or three days, the 
weather clearing when it inclines to W., and mist or rain 
increasing and the barometer falling when it inclines north- 
ward. AVith this wind a decided rise in the barometer is a 
sure sign of a shift to S. W., which shift invariably takes 
place before the wind lulls for any time or fine weather can 
be expected. 

"In summer the wind generally dies away from the S. W., 
but after uncertain durations from that quarter, and before 
the N. or X. W. wind begins again, an hour or so of light 
easterly or northeasterly wind will probably be registered, 
showing that the wind has gone round the right way, through 
the southeastern quarter. Later in the season, or as winter 
advances, the S. E. wind becomes more prevalent, and in- 
stead of the wind dying away at S. W. it will frequently 
vary between S. S. W. and S. E. for two or three days, send- 
ing a heavy swell into Possession Bay. Sometimes it con- 
tinues round to E. or N. E., still blowing hard and with wet 
gloomy weather, not preceded by the interval of fine weather 
experienced on the coast before a gale comes on from the 
eastward. 

" This veering round will, however, like the easterlj^ gales 
on the coast, be found a rare occurrence. As a rule, the 
wind will be found stronger from the S. W., and the squalls 
heavier than from X. W., and no certain warning is given 
of this shift. Sometimes the barometer precedes it, but 
more generally accompanies it. Sometimes heavy banks of 
white cumulus clouds, having hard edges and appearing 
very rounded and solid, will be seen rising from the S. W. 
or southward, but this is more frequently the case when a 
S. W. wind is about to spring up from a calm or light air, 
than as indicative of a gale shifting to S. W. or S. 

"The backing of the wind from S. W. to X, W. is always 
accompanied by a falling barometer, or its ceasing to rise, 



100 WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. 

as it does daring tbe whole time it blows from S. W. Tlie 
change of wind, however, usually accompanies tlie change 
in the barometer, and the mercury merely ceasing to rise 
may indicate the S. W. wind subsiding. If the wind backs 
from N. to IST. E. the same dirty weather may be expected 
that is mentioned as usual when it draws round to the E. 
from the southward, and generally the seaman maybe pre- 
pared for bad weather when the wind backs, even though 
the barometer does not fall. 

"ISTortherly winds are often preceded by low flying clouds, 
with a thickly overcast sky, in which the upper clouds ap- 
pear at a great height. The sun shows dimly through them 
with a reddish appearance, and with its edges so indistinct 
that it is impossible to take an altitude, often for hours, be- 
fore a gale comes on. Sometimes, but very rarely, with the 
wind light between N. K E. and jN". N. W., a few days 
fine weather may occur. Each day of this must be grate- 
fully received as it comes, for it cannot be predicted, and 
occurs sometimes with a high and at times with a low bar. 
ometer.* 

" Easterly winds are certainly more common, and the 
strait is on the whole less windy in winter (June, July, and 
August) than in summer ; but when against this possible 
advantage is placed the cold, with the long nights and short 
days, this season is not likely to be preferred by the mari- 
ner in a vessel bound westward. Though beyond the limits 
of this chapter, it may be well to mention that ships getting 
as far as Cape Froward with a S. W. wind will generally 
find it N. "VV. on rounding the cape, as the wind follows the 
direction of the channel. 

"Captain King, after remaining nearly a year in Port 
Eamine, and a considerable time in the eastern part of Ma- 
gellan Strait, came to the conclusion that the barometer 
could not be considered so unfailing a guide as in the lower 
and middle latitudes, and that ' although the rise and fall 
does sometimes precede the change, yet it more frequently 
accompanies it.' After two seasons careful observation, the 
writer coincides in this opinion, as far as the actual strait 

*In Decemlber, 1867, the Nassau had several clays of beautiful weather, 
with the barometer between 29.05 and 29.50, and then, after a few days' 
blow from S. W., another interval of tine calm weather, with the baro- 
n-.ete: ranging from 30.10 to 29.9t\ 



WINDS — STlîAIT OF :\rA(i l^LLAX. 101 

itst'lf is I'oiiccnu'il. It is probable that tlic «litlerencc of 
opinion cxpiossod by Captains King and Fitzioy on tlio snb- 
Joct is to be attributed to the former Inivin»»' made the 
i^reater part of his observations in the strtut, while those of 
the latter were made on the outer coasts of Terra del Fuego 
or rata<;onia, free from the local intliiences of the narrow 
channels. 

" It has already been said, when speaking of the shift of 
wind from the N. W, to S. W., that the barometer invari- 
ably rises Avith it, and the only rule which we can give as 
at all settled is, that a rising barouieter precedes or accom- 
panies a shift of Avind from N. W. or W. to S. AV., and that 
generally, if tlie mercury falls Avhile it is blowing from S. 
AV., the wind will back to X. AV. again ; but in both these 
cases, nine times out of ten, the two events will occur simul- 
taneously. A table has been constructed from the meteor- 
ological journals of her Majesty's ship Nassau, kept during 
nearly ten months spent between Sandy Point and Cape 
Virgins in 1807-Y)8, some being in corresponding months of 
the different years, in the hope of being able to draw some 
practical conclusions from it, but in vain. 

"The study might interest a scientific person, but, with 
the exception of that given above, no rule useful to the 
seaman navigating the strait could be fonnd. It may be 
added that a meteorological journal, very carefully kept by 
Sr. Jorge C. Schythe during nine years' governorship at 
Sandy Point, has been examined with a like result. Cap- 
tain King, after stating that after a fall of barometer with 
N. W. or northerly winds, a S. W. gale may be expected 
when it ceases to fiill, adds, ' it freqnently, however, falls 
without this change. In the mouth of June, at Port Fam- 
ine, the barometer fell to 28.17, and afterward gradually 
rose to 30.5, which was folloAved by cold weather, in whicb 
the thermometer stood at 12<^ Fahrenheit.' 

"It has been already remarked, when speaking of Avinds, 
that some of our finest weather occurred with a A^ery low 
barometer, and it may be added that frequently the baro- 
meter has fallen so as to lead one to expect and prepare for 
a gale when nothing has come of it. It Avould be interest- 
ing to know Avhether anything occurred to account for such 
changes off Cape Horn, or in open sea at either end of the 



102 



WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN, 



Barometer. 



strait, from whick tlie liigli laud and tortuous chauuels shel- 
tered us.* 

^'Captaiu Kiug gives the following' table of meau tem- 
perature aud pressure of the atmosphere at Port Famine iu 

1828: 



February 
March . . . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . 



Temperature. 


Barometer. 


Fahr. 




51.1 


29.40 


49.4 


29.64 


41.2 


29.57 


35.5 


29.30 


32.9 


29.28 


33.0 


29.37 


33.2 


29.28 



" The same elements taken from the observations of the 
governor at Sandy Point above mentioned would give : 



Months. 



January . . 
February . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August - . . 
September 
October . . . 
November 
December. 



K'umber 
of years. 



Mean. 

9 

9 

10 

8 



Thermometer. 



Fahr. 
54.80 
54.40 
48. 05 
44.10 
40.40 
35.40 
35.40 
37.40 
42. 40 
47.30 
50.70 
53.20 



K"umber 
of years. 



Barometer. 



Mean. 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
4 



Inches. 
29. 55 
29.63 
29.62 
29. 53 
29.61 
29.62 
29.64 
29. 66 
29.60 
29.70 
29.54 
29.60 



"In coming southward from the tropics the gradual low- 
ering of the mercurial column must not be forgotten. It 
has been estimated that a ditïerence of half an iuch exists 
between the mean in the tropics and that in the latitude of 
the strait, t 



* The opiuiou of the late Admiral Fitzroy respecting the harometer 
will be found at page 136, j)art ii, of the Souih American Pllut, sixth edi- 
tion. As already stated, it refers to the open coast, and has only been 
adojited here when it agreed with Captain Mayiie's observations. The 
admiral spent but a short time iu the eastern entrance of the strait. 

t Maury' fi Physical Giograpliy of ilie Sea ; eleventh edition, p. 447, art. 
833. See, also, 14th number of Meteorolorjical Observations, published by 
Board of Trade. 



V.INDS — STIIAIT OF :\IA(;KLLAN. 



10:5 



'•Tlic lollowinti- observations imule in 18()7 scoiu to show 
that tins is o(iuallx true for tbe strait itself:* 



Month. 


MeAn barometer 

observed at 
Kio de Janeiro. 


Mean barometer 

observed 
at Sandy Point. 


Dift'erence. 


July 


30. 243 
30.147 
30. 137 


29. 256 
29. 530 
29. 808 


.9^1 




.617 




.339 








.644 











"For making- tlie passage from east to Avest round the sea.sons. 
Horn, Captain King Avas of opinion tliat the winter season 
is the most tavorable,t and considers the frequency of east- 
erly and northerly winds at that season a set-ofl" against the 
long nights, with the chances of decks covered with snow 
and ro]ies frozen stiff. Whichever may be preferred for a 
sailing- vessel rounding the cape, it has already been said 
that for a steamer in the Magellan Strait, with which alone 
we are now concerned, the summer is far preferable for 
going- either way. 

" Here, as elsewhere, the equinoctial months are the most 
windy, though the heaviest gales do not always occur at 
the equinoxes. March is very boisterous, and its gales are 
usually followed by some fine calm weather in April and 
May. Towards the middle of May the weather becomes 
sensibly colder, and the snow, which has been covering the 
summits of the hills perhaps for some time, will be observed 
to advance down the slopes; it, however, varies greatly. In 
March, 1867, the western mountains were covered with 
snow, and the first fall of snow at the east end was on 1st 
April. In March, 1S08, there was much less snow on the 
western mountains, and none reached the level of the water 
till April 19th. 

"The coldest weather is in June, July, and August; a 
mean of six years' observations gives June as the coldest 
month four times, July once, August| once. Even in these 
Avinter months, howcA'er, though there are occasional cold 
days, the general temperature at Sandy Point during June, 

* These obsevA-atioiis nre reduced to 3'2^ Falirenlicit. Th(> mean differ- 
ence ohscrvcd was 0.744. 
t Smith Amerkan Pilot, vol. ii, p. 218. 
{ Sr. .Scliyflie's joninal.aiid Nassaii^s. 



104 WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. 

July, and August, for several years, is about 36° Fahreuheit. 
With the advance of the vernal equinox the west winds 
increase again, and the equinoctial gales of September, 
like those of March, are usually succeeded by some fine 
weather in October and November. December, January, 
and February are the w^armest, the mean temperature for 
several years for these months being 54° ; the days are then 
long, there is some fine weather, and the sun when out has 
some power. 

" Westerly winds, however, which oftenincrease to violent 
gales and furious squalls with much rain in the western 
part, are frequent even throughout that season, which, as 
far as the mariner is concerned, carries with it less of sum- 
mer than almost any part of the world. We say as far as 
the mariner is concerned, for to the eastward of Sandy 
Point the weather on shore is very fine, though rather 
windy, during summer; the temj)eratnre is pleasant, the 
air bracing and healthy. Indeed, during our two seasons 
there, we hardly ever had more than one or two men on the 
sick list, and those generally from accidents, though their 
work was hard, and the men much exposed, camping out, 
and constantly getting wetted through with salt water. 
The change between this and the western part of the strait 
and the northern channels is very marked in this respect. 
In these latter there were always eight or ten on the ISFassaiûs 
sick list with colds, bronchitis, and rheumatism. 

" It would seem that Admiral Fitzroy was unfortunate in 
having seen the sun so rarely while in those waters, for he 
says* Hhat to endeavor to rate chronometers by equal 
altitudes would be a fruitless waste of time, in any other 
months than April, May, and June.' In 1866-'67-'68, equal 
altitudes were frequently observed in November, December, 
January, and February, and in fact during all the summer 
onths at Sandy Point, Dungeness, Direction Hill, and 
Gregory Bay. At Sandy Point, indeed, we hardly ever ex- 
perienced any difficulty or delay in obtaining equal altitudes 
until June, when the sun was so low as to be available for 
a comparatively short time only on either side of noon. 

"We think vessels would generally be able to rate their 
chronometers at Sandy Point; further westward it would 
be more difficult, though equal altitudes of the sun were 

* South American FUot, page 135. 



CHART OF THE (lEKERAl, ^VIKDS T^ THE ATIANTIC 



OCEAN 




WINDS — STRAIT (W M.V(;iOLLAN. 105 

obtained at 8holl aiul Halt I5ay.s and Island Jlarbor in 
March and April, 1808. 

"Fogs are of rare occurrence and short duration in the fors. 
eastern part of the strait, tlioui^h occasionally they set in 
very thick for a few hours, and with no Marninf>-, during 
calm weather. Dense fogs have, however, been Icnown to 
last two or three days at Sandy Point in the winter months. 
Thick rainy weather is the ordinary condition of the west- 
ern part. 

'' !S(iualls blow with great force and suddenness all over squaiis. 
the strait, making boat work very dangerous, and render- 
ing it inadvisable to set light sails even when the weather 
seems most promising. 

"Thunder and lightning are very rare, indeed scarcely . Timmier ana 
known, except in very bad weather, when violent squalls '^ ""'^' 
come from the S. and S. W., usually giving warning of their 
approach by masses of clouds. 

" These storms are rendered more formidable by snow 
and hail of a large size." 

We will now examine the currents of the Atlantic Ocean. 



CHAPTEE II. 

GENERAL CURRENTS. 

current. ^'"'^^ °^ '^^'^ '^ kinds of currents are distinguislied ; the one occa- 
sioned by the ebb and flow of the sea, which alternate, 
and are felt only a short distance from the coast ; the others, 
on the canses of Avhich philosophers are divided, are nearly 
constant in their direction and do not deviate, except near to 
the shores, which, laying in their route, present an obstacle 
to their usual course; these last, called general currents^ are 
divided into cold and warm currents, according to the tem- 
perature of the waters which compose them. In generaliz- 
ing, the observations on currents may be thus summed up — 
cold currents, directed from the poles toward the Equator 
on the west coasts of the continents ; currents directed 
from E. to W. along the Equator ; and warm currents 
directed from the Equator toward the poles on the east 
coast of the great continents. There has been found a 
cold current setting from the N. to the S. on the west coast 
of Europe and upon the northwest coast of Africa; a cold 
current from the S. to the IST. on the southwest coast of the 
same continent. On the other hand, on the coast of Brazil 
a warm current is met with setting from the IST. to the S.; 
also, a warm current which, turning through the Gulf of 
Mexico, passes the Bahama Channel and the length of the 
coast of the United States, and is known as the Gulf Stream^ 
in the vast basin of the Atlantic Ocean, formed by the 
great longitudinal valley which separates the European and 
African continents from that of America. Such are the 
currents named general currents. We will treat only of 
these in this chapter. 

Philosophers differ on the causes of these permanent or 
general currents. Some attribute them to the action of the 
trade-winds, while the greater number consider that they, 
as the winds, are occasioned by the calorific action of the 
sun and the rotary movement of the earth. Thus, they say, 
following this movement of rotation and the transfer of the 
polar waters toward the Equator, there should be formed 
under the Equator a current having an apparent direction 



E(iuatorial cur 

cuts. 



("IKUKNT — GENERAL CLASSirK'ATlON. 107 

iVoiii tlie K. toward tlio W., as takos ])lac(' with the wind 
1Ï0111 tlie same cause. 

ZS'oM', such a current shoukl necessarily ])rodu('e an at- 
traction of its hiteral waters toward their east(n-n extrem- 
ity . and on the other liand, a hiteral retiux toward their 
western extremity ; in other words, there is a flow of the 
l)ohir waters toward the Equator on the west side of the 
great e<iuatorial continents, and an etidux toward the poles 
ou the eastern sides of the same confluents. 

Besides, the equatorial waters, on approaching the Equa- 
tor, should, from their accelerated velocity of rotation and 
from the flow of the ]>olar waters toward the Equator, take 
a direction from W. to E., as do, in the Atlantic Ocean, the 
Gulf Stream and the current traversing the Atlantic, run- 
ning from the coast of Brazil toward the coast of Africa. 

"We call the equatorial curroit the current running from ^, 
E. to AY. at the Equator; we designate those ^o?ar currents 
which are directed from the poles toward the Equator i'oi''»"^»"«'°ts. 
on the west coasts of the continents, and trojyieal currents iropicai cur- 
those directed from the Equator toward the poles on the 
east side of the continents. 

The velocity of these cnrrents varies at different points of 
tlieir course ; the greatest observed has been from sixty to 
one hundred and twenty miles in twenty-four hours. Their 
temperature is also higher or lower than that of the adja- 
cent sea according to the heat of the sea where they take 
their origin. 

AYe will now indicate the course and the limits of those 
currents in the Atlantic Ocean, giving their velocity and 
mean temperature. AYe will first discuss those of the ]S"orth 
Atlantic Ocean and the equatorial current. 

The equatorial current commences near the west coast of Equatorial cur. 
Africa in longitude 5° 20' or 5° 50' E. It extends entirely'"' ' 
round the Island of Annobon : it runs parallel to the 
Equator between the parallels of 1° and 1° 30' X. and 
those of L'o or 3° S. latitude ; it soon spreads from K. to 
S., and though it passes but little to the N. of the parallel 
just mentioned, it sometimes reaches abreast of Cape Pal- 
mas as far as 2° 30' X. and 5° S. latitude. The length of 
the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea it is tangent for a dis- 
tance of over one thousand miies ; that is, to the vicinity of 
the meridian of 11° or 12° of W. longitude, to another 
current running from W. to E., called the current of the 



108 CURRENT — EQUATORIAL. 

north coast of Guinea. This portion of the sea presents the 
remarkable plienomeuon of two currents in contact, run- 
ning with considerable velocity in opposite directions, and 
' having a difference of temperature of 0°.8 or O^.O of Fahren- 

heit; so that according as a ship may be in the one or the 
other current in navigating to the east or the west, her 
speed is accelerated or retarded from forty to fifty miles per 
day, the velocity of these two currents in this locality. We 
will return hereafter to this important fact. 

Advancing to the west on each side of the Equator, the 
equatorial current, arriving at 20° or 21° of W. longitude, 
throws into the northern hemisphere a branch of considera- 
ble volume, known as the northwest branch of the equatorial 
current, which runs as far as 20° X. latitude, spreading more 
and more, and is sometimes felt as far as 30° E". 

At the same point it spreads more and more toward the 
south and runs thus for the distance of about three hun- 
dred miles, as far as Cape St. Eoque, where it is divided 
into two branches. The north branch, which is the most 
considerable, forms the Current of Guiana and penetrates 
into the Caribbean Sea. 

The south branch taking a direction parallel to the coast 

of South America at a considerable distance seaward, forms 

the current of the coast of Brazil. 

Extent of the The length of the equatorial current from the coast of 

oouatoiiai cur- j^f^,^^^ ^^ Q^^g gj-_ j^^ç^uQ is tweuty-fivc huudrcd miles, and 

to its entrance into the Caribbean Sea four thousand miles. 

Its width near its origin is one hundred and sixty miles, 
on the meridian of Cape Palmas three hundred and sixty 
miles, and it is four hundred and fifty miles before it divides. 
Velocity of this This currcut acquires its greatest velocity in the summer, 
and is at its least in the winter. Between the meridians of 
5° E. and 8° W. longitude its mean is from twenty-five to 
thirty miles per day. 

Between 8° and 14° W. longitude, toward the end of 
June and the commencement of July, it varies from forty- 
five to seventy-five miles ; between 11° and 21° W., from 
forty-five to sixty miles ; the mean velocity may be esti- 
mated at forty-six miles nearly in twenty-four hours. 
Temperature. The mean temperature of its waters is 75°, or from 3° 6 
to 5° 4 above that of the ocean in different seasons. 

The current running toward Cape St. Roque is unfavor- 
able to ships going to the south to cross the line in 22° W. 
longitude. 



CriJRKNT — Kv,)rAT()KIAL. JOÎ) 

TIu' iioi'thwc'st bnuu'h of tlu' oiiuatorial cuncnt runs Xoith\ycst 
fh\st to tlio N. AV., tlieii iu ;i luore iioitlierly direction; this <M|mitoiiai cnr- 
cnniMit is always felt as far as 18° N. latitude, aud even at "'" ' 
times as far as 30°. It is lost iu tlie drift currents of the 
N. E. trades, to which it appears to give a northwesterl 3' di- 
rection and increases their velocity. The breadth of this 
current at the point of separation is nearly two hundred 
miles, and more to the X. it is three hundred miles; its ve- 
locity to 10° ]Sr. latitude is from twenty to twenty-four 
miles per day, from there it decreases gradually. This cur- 
rent is of advantage to ships passing from the southern to 
the northern hemisphere. 

The movement of the waters toward the W., in the zone Distmbamcs 
of which we have just spoken, m the vicinity ot the equa- equatorial cur- 
tor, cannot be doubted. Different navigators, however, 
have met with, and that for several days, a current setting 
to the E. iu this zone ; among others the captains of the 
Bayadere, the Zélée, and the Clorinde, who have crossed 
those currents setting to the E. with a velocity varying from 
three-tenths to one mile i^er hour. 

Such cases can, we think, be regarded as exceptions, and 
the currents mentioned as eddies or counter-currents to the 
limits of the general current. Some authors indicate the 
existence of a current running from the W. to the E., be- 
tween the parallels of 8° and 10° I^., which, they say, com- 
mences to be felt about the meridian of 53° W. and extends 
to the meridian of 2G° W. On this first meridian its i^rin- 
cipal direction would be N. to !N". îî^. E., and in proportion as 
it advances to the E. it becomes broader, its velocity in- 
creases to about the meridian of 38° N. and it takes a more 
easterly direction ; that beyond the meridian of 38° W. its 
velocity decreases with the extension of its bed, and it be- 
comes almost insensible on the meridian of 26° W. We 
point out this current, which might be named the counter 
equatorial current, to the researches of navigators.* 

* Commauder R. W. Shufeklt, IT. S. N., theu iu command of the U. S. 
S. Wachtisetf, thus alhides, iu his remark hook, to this current : " Atten- 
tion is called to the adjoining tahle, showing the rather remarkable co- 
incidence between two passages of this shiji, with reference to a counter- 
current setting strong to the eastward on the northern edge of the great 
equatorial current. It will be observed that the current was found be- 
tween the same parallels and meridians at two different seasons of the 
year ; that in both instances the water was warmer than on either edge 
of it ; that in January the current was stronger aud rather more snith- 



110 



CUPvRENT — GUIANA. 



Drift currents. 



Current of Gni- 
ana. 



We will uow speak of the drift currents, whicli philoso- 
phers attribute to the winds blowing from the same direc- 
tion during a longer or a shorter period. 

The drift currents which owe their origin to constant 
winds, as the trades, are constant themselves, do not vary 
their direction, and have most always the same velocity. 
They are found in the Atlantic between the tropics, but are 
only considered regular between the parallels of 23° î^". and 
9° S. latitude, the space in which the trades blow regularly. 
The drift currents from these winds attain a mean velocity of 
from niue to ten miles in twenty-four hours. 

Drift currents from prevailing winds are not constant in 
either their direction or velocitj" ; they are found to the ÎST. 
and S. of 32° latitude. 

The current of Guiana, which, is a continuation of the 
equatorial current, runs the lengtli of the lower coast of 
Guiana toward the Island of Trinidad ; in the vicinity of 
the Equator it is crossed by the currents of the Amazon, 
which, carrying an immense body of water with great ve- 
locity to the ocean, forms a counter current and vast whirl- 
pools. This, however, does not appear to exert any influence 

erly, owing, jprobably, to the greater strengtli of the "winds in that 
month. On both occasions the wind was easterly, the current conse- 
quently setting against it: 

United Stales Steamer JVachusett. 



October, 1864. 


Temp'e. 


January, 1868. 


Temp'e. 


"ce 
R 


hi 


o 


CuiTents. 


^ 


1 


R 




s 

o 


Currents. 


.'à 
<1 


1 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
21 


o / 

2 02 

3 09 

4 56 
6 51 

8 2S 

9 25 

10 50 

11 56 


O ' 

40 35 

42 OS 

43 48 

44 54 

46 19 

47 38 
49 55 
51 51 


Knots. 
12 W. 
12 W. 
22 W. 

17 N.E.byE. 
16 E. 

12 S. E.by S. 
12 S. E. 
14 westerly. 


o 

82 
83 

84 
84 
85 
84 

82 
84 




80 
80 
80 
83 
83 
85 
80 
80 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


o / 

2 06 

3 17 

3 51 

4 26 

5 34 

6 02 

7 30 
9 12 


O 1 

39 22 

42 07 

43 51 

44 29 
44 50 
46 30 
48 28 
50 17 


Knots. 
36 WSWJW 
32 W. S. W. 
13 W. îf . W. 

17 E. f S. 
59 E. by S. 
44 S. Î E. 
15 S. E. 

18 iSr.E. byE. 


80 
83 

85 
85 
82 
83 
83 
82 




77 
79 
80 
80 
80 
81 
80 
79 



The United States steamer Hartford, in September, 1865, from the lat- 
itude of 10^ N., longitude 260W., to the Equator in longitude 24° W., ex- 
perienced an easterly current, varying from 1 to 1-^ knots per hour, with 
a general set to the northward and ea.stward, and the water was found 
to be of a higher temperature than on either side of this belt. 



CURRENT — CARIBBEAN SEA, ETC. Ill 

Oil its (lii'octioii ; the waters of the river aiul current do not 
mix, and in traversin*;- the current, the waters of the river 
may be recognized three hundred miles from its mouth. 

.V little to the south of Trinidad, the river Orinoco pours 
a lariic body of water into this current; the two directions 
making- a very acute angle, the waters mix readily, and in- 
crease considerably the velocity of the current. 

It then enters the Caribbean Sea through the channels 
between Trinidad and ]\[artinique, where the Islands of St. 
Vincent, Santa Lucia, Grenada, Barbadoes, and Tobago are 
situated. It there takes the name of the Current of the 
Caribbean Sea.* 

Xo constant currents have, as 3'et, been found in the cimont of the 

y-, ., 1 o( 1 ■ XI j_ i? j_i • -I • Caribbean Sea 

Caribbean Sea ; however, in the center 01 this sea, aud m andGuifof Mex- 
the vicinity of the islands Avhich bound it on the X. ^^"' 
and E., there are variable currents, which are most 
frequently directed toward the W. The general current 
runs along the coast of South America, more or less re- 
moved from the shore, and following its contour. Thus it 
is directed from the E. to the W. from the Island of Trini- 
dad to Cape Aguja ; from there it mounts toward the W. 
N. W. and N. W. as far as Cape Catoche, traversing the 
Gulfs of Darien, Nicaragua, and Honduras; Avhen it de- 
scribes a complete circle in the Gulf of Mexico, aud takes the 
name of the General Mexican Current. After turning- 
Cape Catoche, it is directed toward the W. on the bank of 
Campeachy, along the north coast of Yucatan ; it descends 
then to the S. W., following- the bend of the coast, as far as 
the meridian of 95° 10' W. nearly ; there it turns sharply to 
the N. X. E. as far as about the parallel of 25° 30' N., and 
the meridian of 80'° 40' W., where it is directed toward 
the E,, inclining- to the S. in proportion as it advances to. 
ward the Tortugas in passing into the channel comprised 
between the Peninsula of Florida aud the north of Cuba; 
this channel receives the principal branch of this current, 
the other and secondary branch of which x>roduces near 
and to the north of Cape St. Antonio a current toward the 
S., and to the south of Cape St. Antonio, the current setting 
toward the E. and S. E., on the south side of the Island of 
Cuba. This last extends sometimes as far as the Isle of 

* For the currents iu the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico, see the 
Manuel de In Navigation dans la Mer de AntiUes, .)'c. 



112 CURRENT — GULF OF MEXICO. 

Pines, and more to the S. between Cuba and Jamaica. It 
is remarked, that between these two islands and to t he west 
of Jamaica the currents are very variable. 

The general current of the Caribbean Sea forms in this 
sea tw^o counter-currents, a knowledge of which is very use- 
ful in the navigation of the coast of America 5 both run to the 
E. The first commences north of the parallel of San Juan 
deMcaragua, and running alongthe coast, from which it ex- 
tends from ten to twelve miles, is lost in the vicinity of 
Carthagena. The other current to the E., is found in the 
Gulf of Honduras, between the Bay of Honduras and Cape 
Gracias-a-Dios ; it extends along the coast between the bay 
and cape to a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles from 
the land. 

In the season of northerly winds, there is often found 
near the Mosquito coast and the west coast of the Gulf of 
Honduras a current setting to the S. 

]S[ear the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from the river 
of Coatzacoalcos as far as the Bay of Galveston, and in the 
open sea of this coast, in the space comprised between it 
and the general currrent of the Gulf of Mexico, the cur- 
rents are variable and depend on the winds. They are di- 
rected to the W. and N. W. with the trade- winds, and 
attain a velocity of from one to two miles ; with the winds 
from the ]^. they run to the S. and S. S. E. with a velocity 
of one to one and a half mile. 

To the west of the Mississippi, between the Southwest 
Pass of this river and the Bay of Galveston, there is, the 
whole length of the coast, a strong current to the W. near 
the coast ; at its off-shore limit, about forty ^or fifty miles 
from the land, it runs to the W. S, W. and S. W. 

To the east of the Mississippi, the current is directed to 
the E., near the coast. At its off-shore limit it runs to the 
E. S. E. and S. E., and is lost in the general current. 

ISTear the west coast of Florida, the currents are variable 
and depend on the winds. They run most frequently to 
the S. 
Velocity of ihe The velocitv of the current of Guiana varies in its course, 

current of Gni- t • -, ■ -, ^ -, -, • . n 

aaa and of the which IS about fivc hundred and ninety miles, from ten to 

Caribbean Sea. . . i ; i ■ , - ., -, -,• j_ ±^^ 

twenty- one and thirty-six miles per day, according to the 
locality ; in the bed of the current it has been found to be 
four miles per hour, while near the coast it diminishes grad- 
ually to less than one-half mile per hour. The velocity of 



CURRENTS — CARIBBEAN SEA. 1V\ 

the onrreiit of the Caribbean Sea, as a mean, is from one 
an<l a half to two mik\s per hour ; it is ])artieularly strong 
from January to IMareh, 

The temperature of the waters of this eurrent has been Teiiiporatureof 
observed to be SO^.G, and that of the Amazon, very near to *^''' '■""'™*- 
the line of demarcation, also 80°.G. The line of separation 
of the waters of the eurrent and the Amazon is N. W. ^ 
N., and they are as well defined as if composetl of two 
different fluids. The temperature of the seas of archipel- 
a,i*oes has, in general, been found, under the same i^arallel, 
higher than that of the open sea. It is considered, how- 
ever, that the high temperature of the Caribbean is more 
due to the warm currents that penetrate it from the torrid 
zone, than from the increase of heat given to its waters l)y 
the continents which surround it. 

We give the following remarks on the currents of the 
Windward Islands, deduced from a great number of obser- 
vations, judging that they will be found useful in the navi- 
gation of the different passages among these islands. The 
direction which we assign to the currents being the mean, 
they should be regarded only as indicative. Currents 
should always be distrusted, as very variable near land so 
uneven as the Windward Islands, and influenced besides b}^ 
the winds as to the velocity per day. We have cited those 
most frequently encountered, that they may be more readily 
comprehended, and have placed them in a tabular form : 

8 A o 



114 




CURRENTS — WINDWAR D ISLÂIsDS. 








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118 CURRENTS — aULF STREAjM. 

From the parallel of Santa Lucia to that of Anguilla, 
when a little in the ofiing' to the east of the Windward 
Islands, the current runs to the W. S. W. and W., at a ve- 
locity of ten, eleven, and twelve miles per day. From the 
parallel of Auguilla to that of Anegada, it runs to the W. 
at a rate of eleven miles. To the west of the Windward 
Islands and of the meridian of 63^ it is directed tow ard the 
W,, varying to AV. S. W. and W^. N. W. Its mean velocity 
is thirteen or fourteen miles. 

On the parallel of Martinique and Dominica, when be- 
tween the meridians of 61° 10' and 62° 10' AV., the current 
is often found setting to the IST. W. Between Barbadoes and 
Trinidad, on the meridian of the first, the current sets to 
N. W. and IST. IST. W. at a rate of ten, of fifty-eight miles, and 
sometimes sixty-nine miles per day. 
Gulf streamer The Gulf Stream or Current of Florida has its origin in 
the Gulf of Mexico, where its waters, having become heated, 
are directed across the Bahama Channel; leaving this strait 
they run to the northward and westward along the coast of 
Florida, and in latitude 31° N. take a direction nearly N. E., 
as far as Cape Hatteras. There, from the re-entering of the 
coast, the Avestern limit of the current takes a more north- 
erly direction, while its bed continues to run tow^ard the 
N. E., until it encounters George's and ISTantucket Banks, 
when its direction becomes E. A little after, in passing 
over the southern extremity of the Grand Bank of IS'ew- 
foundland, it takes the direction E. 11° IS"., and keeps this 
direction between the parallels of 35° and 43° X. latitude, 
until it arrives at the meridian of 36° W. longitude ; there 
it turns to the S. E. and to the S. ; when, turning to tJie 
westward of the Azores, it is lost in the ocean. 

Its warm waters have, however, sometimes been found 
on the west coast of Europe ; they have been observed be- 
tween the parallels of 44° 20' and 39° N., among others by 
Franklin. 
_ ^ , , The Gulf Stream extends about three thousand miles 

Extent and 

velocity of the from its Origin to the wesfc of the Azores ; it traverses in 

Gulf Stream. '^ ' 

its course 20° of latitude from the parallel of 23° to that 
of 43°. From observations made on this current, its mean 
velocity at the entrance of the Bahama Channel, at the 
Islands of Bernini, and as far as 31° N., would be seventy 
miles in twenty-four hours. A velocity of eighty miles in 
twenty-four hours was found between the parallels of 20° 



CURRENTS— (iULF .STREA:M. 11!» 

and I'T^ X., w1r".i Xlw wind was blowini;- iVoiii the X. with 
vioh'iu'L'. At the outlet of the Straits of llorida abreast 
of Cape Florida, its rapidity resembles a torrent, and 
reaches at times one hundred and twenty miles per day. 
Its velocity decreases then <;r;idually in its course toward 
the E.; between the meridians of 03^ and 04° W. it is fifty- 
five miles per day, and on that of 40"^ 10' W., it is not more 
than thirty to thirty-five miles. 

Tlie CtuU' Stream diminishes very rapidly its velocity on 
turning' to the S.; and to the M'est of the Azores and near 
these islands it is but ten miles per day. 

The current is narrowest in the Florida Channel, between 
Cape Florida and the Islands of Beniini, which is a distance 
of thirty-four or thirty-five niiles, nearly the whole of which 
is occupied by the current, and it has here a great velocity. 
About seven hundred miles to the northward and eastward 
of Cape Hatteras the breadth of its bed is estimated to be 
about seventy-five miles, and beyond this it enlarges con- 
siderably to the northward and to tlie eastward. 

The end of August and the commencement of September 
are the i)eriods when the Gulf Stream acquires its greatest 
velocity and its highest temperature, its minimum velocity 
and lowest temperature are in the month of February. In 
the month of October the current is much weaker than in 
September, its velocity varies according to the season. 
I^ear the coast of Cuba, at its southern limit, the Gulf 
Stream is generally w^eak ; there exists here often, if not 
always, a counter-current, of which we will speak hereafter. 
On the meridian of Matauzas the great velocity of the cur- 
rent is nearly on the parallel of 24^ X. ; at the northern and 
western limits of the Gulf Stream, in its whole extent, the 
velocity observed is greater than at its southern and east- 
ern limits, where, from its tendency to spread into the ocean 
and from eddies, its strength is diminished. 

On the north side of Cul)a, as has been remarked, the cur- counter-cur- 

, • , T , 1 . i J.1 -J? 1 1. I'ents of the Gulf 

rent is weak, and near this coast there is found a connter stream. 
current, which also exists on the southern and eastern limits 
of the Gulf Stream throughout its extent. On the opposite 
border of the Florida Channel along the Carysfort Cays 
there is also found a counter-current setting to the S. and to 
the W., according to the position occupied in the channel; 
the same counter-current exists on the north and west bor- 
der of the Gulf Stream through its whole extent. 



120 CURRENTS — GULP STREAM. 

When the weather is good, a well-defined line appears to 
separate the principal from the counter-current near the 
Carysfort Cays ; outside of this line the water ripples in 
some places and a strong chop is observed. The color of the 
sea varies in the counter-current, and it changes from a 
deep blue to sea green and to milk white in proportion as 
the Florida Eeef is approached. 

When the winds are regular and moderate, the force of 
the current in the Florida Channel is not extraordinary, but 
after a gale from the IS", or jST. E., and while it blows, the 
current and the counter-currents acquire a great velocity. 
The winds from N., IST. E., and E. diminish the breadth of 
the bed of the stream, and its velocity becomes consider- 
able when [these winds blow from September to March. 
The winds from S. and S. E. have less tendency to increase 
the principal current, the bed of which increases and is less 
removed from the coast, from which, it is separated by the 
counter-current whicli runs to the S. 

The winds from jST. W., W., and S. W. also spread the bed 
of the current on the border towards the ocean, which 
diminishes its velocity. Lastly, the phases of the moon 
also exert an influence on the Gulf Stream, thougli not in 
so great a degree as the winds, but combined it results that 
the shores of Florida and the Carysfort Eeefs and Cays are 
inundated. When a gale from the N. happens at the full 
and change, under these circumstances the water has risen 
five and a half fathoms above its level. 

The Gulf Stream, from the parallel of 26° to that of 28°, 
runs generally to the N., bending a little to the E., between 
those of 28° and 35°, the parallel of Cape Hatteras ; at its 
western limit it runs to the IsT. and N. jS". E. and to the N. E. ; 
it is there arrested by the Bank of Soundings extending 
from the coast, and follows its contours, with different 
velocities according to the season. The limit of the current 
passes nearly forty miles from the coasts of Georgia and 
Carolina, and is nearer to that of Florida. The mean 
breadth of the bed of the current is about sixty miles, less 
near Cape Canaveral, more on the parallel of Cape Hat- 
teras. In this locality the current has at times been found 
having a velocity of five miles per hour ; its mean is three 
miles. The current then, instead of removing from the 
coast on arriving at the parallel of Cape Hatteras, ap- 
proaches it between the parallels of 38° and 39°, as has 



CURRENTS — (ULK STREAM, IL'L 

been alicady iviiiaiked, and its velocity is two and a- liall' 
miles per hour. It then runs along the George and Nan- 
tucket Bauks, Avhich divert it to the E. N. E. and E. by jST. 
After it has passed Cape Hatteras it runs to the N. jST. E., 
and then to E. towards George's Bank, extending nearly 
to 4:(P latitude N. Its southern limit, taking the direction 
of N. N. E., cuts the parallel of 35° N. on about the meridian 
of 72° W. longitude, or one hundred and twenty miles E. by 
S. of Cape Hatteras. 

Between the Bank of Soundings on the coast of the United 
States and the western limit of the Gulf Stream there is a 
space of about forty miles which is occupied by the cold 
counter-current, which runs S. by W. (principally during 
the months of winter, December to April) with a velocity 
of twelve miles per day. Between the meridians of 70° and 
05° N., the northern limit of the current appears to be the 
edge of George's Bank, beyond which it turns toward N. E. 
by E. as far as the meridian of 05°, which it cuts ; in the 
summer in the latitude of 41° N., and in winter much more 
to the southward. Its southern limit during the same sea- 
son is nearly the parallel of 35°. 

Between the meridians of G5° and 60°, the portion of the 
current between the Bermudas and Nova Scotia, it is found 
that the northern limit of the bed of the current attains 
the parallel of 41° 20' in the longitude of 05°, and the par- 
allel of 42° 15' in the longitude 59° 40'. Its southern limit 
has not been exactly ascertained. 

In the north part of the Gulf Stream, during the winter, 
from December to March, there are constant and heavy 
squalls, most frequently" between N. and W., blowing ob- 
liquely to the bed of the current from Cape Hatteras to be- 
yond George's Bank, and tending to give its waters a move- 
ment toward the E,, at times so strong that it is impos- 
sible for a ship to approach the land, unless with a strong 
favorable wind. When the winds blow from S. and E., 
which is not common in these localities, the current ap- 
proaches the coast, and in some places passes the edge of 
the Bank of Soundings, compressed, as it were, between the 
edge of the bank and the easterly wind, the breadth of the 
stream diminishes and its velocity increases proportionally. 
This fact is particularly remarked from the meridian of 
Block Island, the length of the edge of the Bank of Nan- 
tucket, and from there toward the George's ; also, along the 



122 OUKRENTS — GULF STREAM. 

coast of Georgia aucl a part of Soiitli Caroliua, With the 
winds from W. and IST. W., the bed of the cnrrent spreads 
many miles into the Atlantic Ocean. 

From what has been said on the principal limits of the 
bed of the cnrrent and the changes of position which have 
been observed, it can be concluded that the counter-currents 
I)rodnced by the Gnlf Stream undergo equal variations, and 
especially near its outer limits ifc is generally found that the 
counter-current takes a direction opposite to that of the 
principal current. Its velocity is increased in proportion to 
the force of the wind blowing from a direction opposite that 
of the Gulf Stream, while it is diminished and the counter- 
current disappears almost entirely when the wind blows from 
a direction following the principal current. In the last case 
the bed of the stream expands. The east portion of its cur- 
rent, between the meridians of 60^ and 30° W., increases 
greatly its breadth ; its direction is consequently very 
variable and its limits less defined. On the meridian of 60° 
its northern limit attains, in the summer, to 42° 15'. From 
there it passes over the southern part of the Bank of New- 
foundland, and the current going to the E. N. E., and some- 
times to the jST, E. beyond the bank, its limit attains to the 
latitude of 41° 30' ^S". on the meridian of 41° W. It is about 
this meridian that the limit of the Gulf Stream commences 
to descend toward the S. To the W. of the Azores, between 
the meridians of 40° and 30° W., in the winter, the north- 
ern limit of the current is 30', or 1° less to the ^S". than 
during the other season. On the meridian of 60° W. it does 
not pass the latitude of 41° 30' î^. 

The southern limit of this part of the Gulf Stream does 
not appear to be fixed. Most frequently it is found very 
variable, with a tendency towards the S., when the great 
volume of water to the N. advances to the E. In the prin- 
cipal current, during the month of August, its velocity 
varies from fifty to twenty miles per day. It decreases in 
going to the E. 

As the month of zVugust and the commencement of Sep- 
tember are the periods when the velocity is the greatest, it 
is necessary to make a diminution in allowing for the other 
months. 

On the meridian of 60° tlie width of the bed of the Gulf 
Stream is, at the end of summer, about three hundred and 
fifty miles. The drift currents of the trade-winds, which are 
found to the southward of the bed of the Gulf Stream, and. 



CIKKKNTS — (ULl' STKKAM. ll*.") 

ill till' \ iciiiity of the Jîonuudas, run in a contrary (liivction 
to the (liilf Stream; and tliongli very variable, are .gener- 
ally to the W. S. AV. To the north of the Gulf Stream are 
found variable currents, eddies, and currents derived from 
prevailing" winds. 

The Gulf Stream is generally lost on entering that part 
of the Atlantic Ocean called by the Portuguese the Sea of 
Sargasso or vSargaeao, a name given to a species of Fucus 
natans very common in this part of the ocean ; it is the 
marine plant commonly known as the Gulf rceerl. 

This gulf weed occupies to the south of the Gulf Stream 
the space comprised between the parallels of 37'^ and 18° 
y. latitude and the meridians of 33° and 43° W. longitude. 
In this space is found at times lines of the fucus very thick 
and compact, at others it is dispersed and divided into small 
groups. 

The Sargasso Sea may be regarded as l)ounded on the 
south by the equatorial current directed to the \Y. ; on the 
east, by the currents running S. and coming from the north 
of the ocean; and on the north and west, by the Gulf 
Stream. Its extent from north to south is more than twelve 
hundred miles, and within these limits the sea or gulf weed 
is found in greater quantities than elsewhere. During the 
past sixt}' years it does not appear to have much changed 
its position. It may be stationary, or unable to leave the 
position it occupies, which, according to Eeunel, would in- 
dicate in this locality a kind of depression of the level, as 
is remarked in whirlpools. 

Some portions of this fucus are detached from the large 
masses and carried by the drift currents of the trade- wind s 
toward the Virgin Islands, and toward Porto Eico, until 
they reach the current of the Caribbean Sea, which carries 
them to the west. 

As a summary, we will say that the point where the 
greatest velocity of the Gulf Stream is found in August and 
September is about the latitude 37° 45' N. ; that the velocitj- 
of this current is very variable, and that the mean does not 
exceed three miles per hour. 

The maximum temperature observed in the waters of the 
Gulf Stream has been 8G°, which is 9° above that of the 
ocean on the same parallel ; 10° further north it has been 
lound 84°, having in this space fiiUeu 2° ; in 61° W. longi- 
tude it has been found 81° in the summer and 67° in the 



124 CURRENTS — GULF STREAM. 

winter; iu 43° W. lougitude, 75° ; and in 38° W. longitude, 
73°. The temperature thus appears to decrease with the 
velo(;ity, but not as rapidly as the waters advance to the 
E, ; for when they turn to the S. they retain still a high 
temperature. 

In leaving the Bahama Channel the waters of the Gulf 
Stream have a deep indigo color, and their line of separa- 
tion from the green waters of the Atlantic Ocean is per- 
fectly appreciable for a space of a hundred miles. 
]N. E. braucii of When the Gulf Stream turns to the S. E., to the north of 
r am-ii^ç Azorcs, aud about the meridian of 36° W., it throws 
off toward the jS". E. a considerable branch, with a breadth 
of about six hundred miles, which ascends toward the pole, 
passing, in part, between Iceland and the Norwegian coast, 
and enveloping the Faroe Islands. The waters of this cur- 
rent are warm, and their temperature has been found to be 
54° in the summer and 51° in the winter. Its direction is 
toward the N. E. There is but little information as to its 
velocity. (See Appendix, No. 2.) 

This current is important to ships going from the West 
Indies, Norway, Denmark, or to points situated in the north 
of the North Sea. 

Captain Dundas Cochrane thinks that the currents met 
in Baffin's Bay and Davis's Strait come from the Polar Sea, 
which bathes the coast of North America. 

''All the expeditions made to this locality," says this 
ofi&cer, " and among others that of Captain Franklin, have 
shown regular currents setting from the Polar Sea toward 
Baffin's Bay. Captains Boss and Parry encountered them 
in the Polar Sea, and in this bay, having a velocity of three 
to four miles per hour. There is little dioubt that between 
Hudson's Bay and Barrow and Lancaster Straits there are 
a number of channels traversed by rapid currents, which 
render their navigation both difficult and dangerous. 

In Behring Strait there are the voyages of Cook, or 
rather of Clerke and of Kotzebue, also the recent Russian 
expedition commanded by Captain Vasillief. These differ- 
ent navigators have found currents setting to the N., to the 
N. E., and to the E. N. E.; the observations of the last men- 
tioned are the most conclusive. On the coast of Kamt- 
chatka he found the currents setting to the E. N. E. so 
strong, thirty miles beyond Icy Cape, that he hesitated to 
advance further, fearing that he might not be able to effect 



CIKKKNT.-- — AKCTlf (TIÎKKNT. 1 L'.") 

his rotuni, ;is ho icpirdrd w inU'iiiiu in tlicse Irozcii ro.uioii.s 
as iinpiiuU'Ut it' not (laiiiiiM'oii.s. (See ApiJOinIix Xo. L*.) 

"All the authors, all the philoso[>her.s, as well as those 
^Yho have made researches iu this matter, admit that there 
is a eiurent i)enetrating' into the Polar Sea from the Pacific, 
by JU'hring's Strait, at least during' the autumn, and a cur- 
rent returning- from the Polar Sea by Baffin's Bay. The 
arctic current is attributed to this cause. The currents 
observed by Captain Franklin are confirmed b^- this fact, 
that in the localities in question the drift-wood is all carried 
to the west of the capes or promontories on the coast, which 
is a proof that in these regions there are no currents run- 
ning to the W." 

These remarks of Captain Cochrane explain in a satis- 
factory manner the currents which descend from Baffin's 
Bay and Hudson's Strait, and set to the S. with considera- 
ble velocity. 

The arctic current is supposed to take its rise in the Arctic timent. 
frozen regions which surrouinl the pole ; from thence it de- 
scends along the west coast of Greenland as far as Cape 
Farewell. It is divided at this cape into two branches ; the 
one, returning to the N. along the west coast of Greenland, 
as far as al)out the parallel of 6(P, is lost in the Current of 
Baflin's Bay; the other diverges toward the S. W., and 
mixes with the waters of the Hudson's Bay Current, which 
descends through the différent straits iu this part of the 
Polar Sea situated to the north of America. The name of 
polar current of America would be better adapted to this 
current, we think, than the one given to it at present. 

The Current of Hudson's Bay arriving at the north point of 
Newfoundland, is divided into two branches; the one 
penetrates the Straits of Belle-He, the other passing over 
the Newfoundland Bank, where its waters mix with those 
of the arctic current. Near the east coast of this island 
this current, discharging into the ocean, appears to have a 
predominant direction to the S. W., and a velocity, at 
times, of two miles per hour; however, it varies according 
to the force and direction of the wind. The current along 
the east coast of Newfoundland turns Cape Bace, and is 
directed towards the AV., following- the south coast, until it 
meets the current from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The point 
of meeting of these currents is a little to the west of the 
Island of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. 



126 CURRENTS — BAY OF BISCAY. 

G uric lit of Captaiu Baj'field has remarked that the branch of the 
ï^tiW t s'^'o f Hudson's Bay Current which penetrates the Straits of Belle- 
^ *" ^' lie, follows at first the direction of this strait, and is di- 

rected toward the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This is confirmed 
by the ice transported by this current during the summer 
in spite of the prevailing winds from S. W. As far as Me- 
catina, and sometimes to the vicinity of the east point of 
Anticosti, its velocity becomes greater, with a succession of 
winds from the N. E.5 then it attains in the strait a velocity 
of forty-eight miles per day, and thirty or forty miles further 
to the west it diminishes gradually as the current enters the 
larger extent of the gulf. Its velocity, however, is generally 
less than that indicated above, and when the winds from 
S. W. prevail, it is almost insensible. To the east of Davis's 
Strait, many observations show that the prevailing current 
is to the E. Many bottles thrown in the sea by Captains 
lioss and Parry have been found on the coast of Ireland, 
and on the shores of the islands west of Scotland. (See 
Appendix No. 2.) 
Current Bay of Altliough to the wcst of the Azorcs the current of the 
iscay. Gulf stream turns partly towards the S., there exists between 

this archipelago and the coast of Europe a general move- 
mont of the waters from W. to E. This is the current 
known to seamen as the Current of the Bay of Biscay. This 
current, whether produced by the warm waters of the Gulf 
Stream, or by the cold streams running from the poles to- 
wards the Equator, is a question as yet unsettled. 

The strength of the Current of the Bay of Biscay appears 
to be very variable, it has been observed to be at times 
from ten to fourteen miles in twenty-four hours. It has 
been met with twenty-four miles per day. 

On the parallel of Cape Finistère, the Current of the Bay 
of Biscay, which Avaries in direction principally from E. S. 
E. to S. E., is divided into two branches; one forms the 
Eennel Current, the other the current of the coast of 
Portugal. 
Eeiinei current. The Eenuel Current, which bears the name of the learned 
major who first observed it, is directed toward the E., in 
the vicinity of Cape Finistère ; it runs along the north coast 
of Spain, it then mounts to the IST. along the west coast of 
France. In this locality it commences to be felt thirty or 
forty miles off the coast and has a breadth of fifteen or 
twenty miles. Its velocity has been found to be one-half 



(TKUKN'l'S — C0A8T OF roiITUCiAL, IL'T 

to two-thirdsi of a mile per liour ; it is, liowever, vi'iy \n- 
lialtle, lollo^vill^;• tlie tliioction and force of the winds; it 
lias often been fonnd one mile per hour. To this current is 
attributed the loss of many ships in making the land about 
the Channel. It enlarges more and more in going to the north. 
On the parallel of Brest it extends eighty miles from east to 
west, and its direction is nearly N. W. ; it runs from the Bay 
of Biscay, passes to the west of Ushaut, tifteen or twenty 
miles from this island, traverses the entrance of the Chan- 
nel and is directed to the west of the Scilly Islands ; at the 
opening of the Irish Sea it throws one branch into this sea, 
the principal branch being directed toward Cape Clear, run- 
niug to the AY. X. W. or W., and is lost near the meridian 
of 18° W. in the polar current of Northern Africa. 

The second branch of the Current of the Bay of Biscay, current of tiie 
called the current of the coast of Portugal, is directed from "current of the 
Cape Finistère toward the S. S. E. and S. E, ; along the coast, tar.' 
at the parallel of Cape St. Vincent, its direction becomes S.E., 
and in descending toward the S. it bends to the E. more and 
more until it reaches the entrance to the Strait of Gibral- 
tar, toward which, from the meridian of 18° W., are directed 
all the waters from Cape St. Vincent on the north to Cape 
Cantin on the south, to form the current of the Strait of 
Gibraltar, which carries the waters of the ocean to the 
Mediterranean. 

The velocity of the current of the coast of Portugal has 
been found to be from twelve to twenty-four miles per day ; 
it is, however, very variable, according to the prevailing- 
winds, their force and duration. On this coast, then, this 
current should be distrusted, particularly in winter, with 
strong winds from the W., and the coast be kept at a sufiti- 
cient distance. 

It is necessary, also, in the Bay of Biscay to pay great 
attention to the Biscay Current, as also to that of liennel ; 
these tw^o currents gain additional force in proportion as 
the winds from AV., variable from N. AV. to S. W., have 
blown a length of time or with violence ; it will be prudent 
in this case to keep always a lookout for the land of the 
Channel, and in leaving the Bay of Biscay to double Cape 
Finistère well to seaward. The Bay of Biscay presents this 
important fact, that while in open sea and to the southward 
the waters are directed towards the E., E. S. E., and S. E., 
which is proved by the great number of bottles found near 



128 CUERENTS — COAST OF NORTHERN GUINEA. 

Bayonne and the basiii of Arcaclion ; the waters of the in- 
terior' near the coast of France run toward the IST. and N. 
W. to And an exit. 
Polar current of rj^i^Q polar Current of North Africa rises in that portion 

Africa and cur- '- '- 

rent of the uortii of the sca situatcd to the north of the Azores, and nearly 
on the parallel of Cape Finistère. It is directed to the S., 
and the principal bulk of its waters passes to the east of 
this archipelago, then to the west of Madeira, while between 
Cape St. Vincent and Cape Cantin all the mass of w^aters, 
as far as the longitude of 18° W., is directed to the N. E. 
and S. E., toward the Strait of Gibraltar, in which they are 
ingulfed as in a funnel. 

From Cape Cantin to Cape Bojador, between the merid- 
ian of Madeira and the coast of Africa, it is oftenest di- 
rected to the E, S. E., but with this direction, in this local- 
ity, it does not extend more than one hundred and fifty or 
one hundred and eighty miles from the coast. More in open 
sea it runs to the S. and S. S. W. From the Canaries to 
Cape Verd its direction is generally from S. to S. S. W. ; 
at Cape Verd it turns some degrees to the E. of S., follow- 
ing the coast of Africa, and it takes the name of the Current 
of Northern Guinea^ at the parallel of Cape Palmas. 

Its western limit, at the parallel of Cape Verd, is be- 
tween the Island of Sal and San Nicolas, then between the 
Island of Mayo and Santiago, of the Cape Verd Archi- 
loelago ; its direction is from S. to S. W., as through nearly 
all this limit from its source as far as this point. 

. At the parallel of Cape Mesurado its direction becomes 
E. S. E. and even E. in the open sea, while at a little dis- 
tance from the coast it is S. E. as far as Cape Palmas ; there 
its direction is E. in the open sea ; then E. N. E. and E. S. 
E. to the bight of the Gulf of Benin ; it runs then in con- 
tact with the equatorial current, and after turning Princes 
Island its waters probably mix with those of the equatorial 
current. 
Extent of the The breadth of the Current of Northern Guinea varies 

ern^Guinea. °^' " according to the scason. On the parallel of Cape Palmas 
it extends to seaward about one hundred and eighty miles, 
that is, about as far as 12° W. longitude, and occupies the 
space comprised between the parallel of 2° 30' N. and the 
coast of Guinea. It has on the meridian of Cape Palmas a 
breadth of about one hundred and fifty miles, but to fhQ 
east and in the Gulf of Benin it attains a much more con- 



CURRENT,-^ — OF NORTK GUINEA. 129 

siderable breadtb, about throe buudred miles from north to 
south. Neither this nor the equatorial current is felt in the 
viciuity of St. Thomas, the latter not until a little to the 
west of this island, in longitude 5° 50' E. 

The velocity of the polar cnrrent of North Africa near Velocity of tiio 
its origin and abreast the coast of Portugal is about twelve North Africa, 
miles per day ', abreast the coast of Africa it varies between 
sixteen and ten miles, as far as Cape Palmas. 

The velocity of the Current of Northern Guinea is the ,, "Velocity of the 

' "^ Current or North- 

greatest from June to September. To the east of Cape «rn Guinea. 

Talmas, at this period, it has been fonnd from forty to 

tifty miles per day. Abreast of Cape Three Points it is 

about thirty-fonr miles ; it then diminishes, and in the Gulf 

of Benin it bends from the E. toward the S. 

At the Cape Verd Islands the temperature of the Temperature ot 

n 1 ■ , ■ r^ r- r^ 1 -, -i ^^^ cufrcnt. 

waters of this current is from 7° to 9° below that of the 
waters of the ocean in this vicinity ; it rises with rapidity 
as it goes S. In the Gulf of Guinea the temperature has 
been observed at 84° in the middle of the current and from 
83° to 82° at its southern limit, in contact with the colder 
waters of the equatorial current ; it is 79*^ to 81° in its 
northern i^art and in the vicinity of the coast. 

This current is of great importance in the navigation of 
the west coast of Africa. 

Such are the geueral currents in the North Atlantic 
Ocean, the remainder of which is occupied by drift currents, 
the principal of these, as we have already said, is that di- 
rected toward the W. and S. W. from the effect of the N. 
E. trade-winds. 

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

Table of the comparative mean velocities of the currents in this 
hemisphere in twenty four hours. 

Miles. 

Equatorial Current 46 

Current of Guiana 30 

Gulf Stream 35 

Drift Current of the N. E. trades 10 

Rennel Current 18 

African Current of Northern Guinea 20 

From the numerous bottles thrown into the sea it appears 
that in the Atlantic Ocean the waters have a movement 
from W. to E., for, from the observations made on this sub- 
9 AO 



130 CURRENTS — OF BRAZIL. 

ject by the learned hydrographie engineer Daussy, all that 
have arrived have been found on the coasts of Europe, and 
not one has been reported on the coast of America. The 
wind necessarily should be considered in the route of these 
bottles toward the continents ; but by this only a move- 
ment of the upper strata of the waters would be indicated. 
The solution of the great question of the currents of the 
ISTorth Atlantic lies in the study of the currents and the 
temperature of the waters of the Strait of Gibraltar; are 
the waters carried by the ocean to the Mediterranean warm 
or cold"? Do they supply those brought from the Gulf 
Stream, or those wMch, coming from the regions of the north, 
descend along the coast of Africa ? This is the scientific 
question long proposed, but not as yet completely solved. 
We will indicate the currents of the South Atlantic : 

Current of Bra. Wc havc already spoken of the Current of Brazil, the 
south branch of the equatorial current dividing at Cape St. 
Koque. It extends two hundred and fifty or three hundred 
miles from the coast of South America, and spreads into 
the ocean 6° or 7°. The space between the coast and the 
current is occupied by other currents, receiving their direc- 
tion from the alternate winds from S. E. and ]S'. E. The 
waters of the Current of Brazil are traversed by those of the 
Kio de la Plata, which can be recognized two hundred miles 
to seaward of its mouth. These waters, however, do not 
appear to exert any considerable influence on the Brazil 
Current, which, in this locality, is divided probably into two 
branches; the most considerable turns to the E., and forms 
the traverse current of the South Atlantic Ocean ; the other 
branch, directed to the S., forms a current which, though 
very weak, is sometimes experienced as far as the entrance 
of the Strait of Magellan. 

Velocity of this The mcau velocity of this current at its point nearest ap- 
cmrent. proacliing the Equator is about twenty miles per day. 

Currents of tiie We have sald that between the coast of Brazil and the 
coast of Brazil. ç^^j.^.gjjj^ j^^g^ mentioned alternate currents are fouud, occa- 
sioned by the periodic winds which blow on this coast ; the 
strength of these currents depend on the force of the winds, 
and are accordingly very variable. From March to Sep- 
tember, the season of the winds from S. E. to E. S. E., the 
currents mount toward the î^. : from September to March, 
with the winds from N. E., variable to E. N. E., they des- 
cend toward the S. In these general directions, however. 



OURREÎs'T — TRAVERSE OF ATLANTIC. 131 

■vvill be louiul many variations duo to the contour of the 
coast, these currents are not felt more than one hundred 
and tifty to one huudre<l and eighty miles from the coast, 
and are of great importance to navigators of this locality. 
The Current of Cape Horn is constantly directed from the Current o r 

-.^ • 1 ^ . , '., 4 .1 /• T±. Cape Horn. 

Antarctic and the Pacihc Oceans into the Atlantic, its 
general direction is E. X. E. and X. E. ; whatever may be the 
prevailing winds on the east coast of America, it is directed 
to the iST. E. and surrounds the Falkland Islands. At cer- 
tain seasons it keeps its course to the X. E. as far as the 
parallel of 48° or 49° S. latitude, and it is probable that it 
mixes its waters with the traverse current of the South At- 
lantic, of which we will speak. 

In the vicinity of Tierra del Euego this current has been 
observed to have a mean velocity of from twelve to fifteen 
miles in twenty-four hours. In the latitude of 57° S., and 
longitude of 72° W., it has been found thirty-five miles per 
day. Ill the vicinity of the coast its mean velocity would 
be about twenty-four miles in twenty-four hours, while be- 
tween Cape Horn and Stateii Island, in latitude 55° S., its 
direction is ]Sr. 51° E., and its velocity fifty-six miles. 

This current advances to the X,, and coming in jiart fi'om Temperature. 
the Antarctic Sea has a temperature much lower than that 
of the waters of the adjacent ocean.* 

The portion of the ocean occupied by the traverse cur- Traverse cur- 
rent, which sets from the coast of Brazil toward the Cape lantic. 
of Good Hope, is still imj)erfectly known. It is believed to 
be formed in a great measure by the tropical current of the 
coast of Brazil, but this is not positively known. It ad- 
vances Avith great rapidity toward the E., passing to the 
south of the Cape of Good Hope at the distance of one hun- 
dred and fifty to one hundred and eighty miles ; it then pen- 
etrates the Indian Ocean, where it is traced two thousand 
miles beyond the cape, where it forms the current of the 
south and west coasts of Australia. This traverse current 
is very fiivorable for ships going by the east to the îîast 
Indies and in the Pacific Oceans. 

The Current of Cape Agulhas, orof the Cape of (rood Hope, .,^""^"* "'■ 

^ '^ ' ' ^ ' Cape A siilhas, or 

is formed bv two other currents coming from the Indian "*' the cape of 

. '^ Good Hope. 

Ocean, the principal of which, directed toward the S., de- 
scends the Mozambique Channel along the coast of Africa ; 

* See Geno-al Examination of the Pacific relative to the Current of Cape 
Horn. 



132 CUEEENÏ — OF CAPE AGrULHAS 

the other comiug- irom the sea, situated to the south of Mad- 
agascar, is the southwest branch of the equatorial current 
of the Indian Ocean. 

These two Indian currents unite a little to the south of Port 
Natal, where they take a more southerly direction, along 
the edge of the Agulhas Bank, then, instead of passing en- 
tire, as has been supposed, into the Atlantic Ocean, the 
great part of its waters return by a counter-current into the 
Indian Ocean, mixing with the traverse current of the At- 
lantic Ocean, of which we have spoken. After the Bank of 
Agulhas has checked its course to the W. this counter- 
current is called " the counter-current of the Cape of Good 
Hope," or "the traverse current of the Indian Ocean."* 

Polar current The Other x)ortion of the waters of the Current of Cape 

lantic. Agulhas rctums in the Atlantic Ocean along the west coast 

of Africa for nearly its whole extent. This branch is called 

"the polar current of the South Atlantic," or "the South 

Atlantic Current." 

Breadth of the At the jjoiut of rcuuion of the currents which form it, 

g as urren . ^pp^^gj^g Cape Kecifc, the Agulhas or Cape of Good Hoi:)e 
Current has a breadth of ninety to one hundred miles ; its 
velocity in some i^arts is sixty and as much as one hundred 
miles per day. 

Temperature Outside the Bank of Agulhas its temperature has been 

of this current. ° ■■- 

observed to be 70°, which is 9° above the temperature of 
the ocean. Near the edge of the bank it has been found 68°, 
8° above the temperature of the ocean. 

On the same bank the temperature of the water has been 
found 5°.4 below that of the surrounding ocean. 
Breadth of the The couutcr-current of the Cape of Good Hope attains at 
orthrblpeTf times a breadth of from two hundred and ten to two hun- 
Good Hope. (jred and forty miles. 

sc nth Atlantic The polar currcut of the South Atlantic, which, as we 
polar cuiTent. j^g^yg snid, is the ouly branch of the Current of the Cape of 
Good Hope which penetrates into the Atlantic Ocean, turns 
the Cape of Good Hope. It extends eighty to one hundred 
miles to seaward, and passes to the north of the traverse 
current of the Atlantic Ocean. Abreast the Cape of Good 
Hope it increases considerably, and extends about one hun- 
dred and fifty to one hundred and sixty miles. It runs, 
then, toward the N., spreading more and more, and emp- 
ties into the equatorial current. Its principal direction is 
* See general examination of the Indian Ocean. 



CURRENT— OF SOUTHERN GUINEA. 133 

N. W. Opposite to the Cape of Good llopo, and nearly in 
its latitude, it receives a branch which appears to proceed 
Ironi the traverse current of the Atlantic Ocean. 

The mean velocity of this current has been found to be^.J^*;'^'^;'^"'"^^''^ 
sixteen miles per day in its in-incipal direction of N. W. ; it 
meets in its course the Avaters of the Elver Congo, which, 
though running with much force, do not appear to have any 
marked influence upon its direction, the meeting currents 
deviating from this current but at a small angle. Its waters, 
as those of the Amazon, do not mingle, and for a distance 
of two hundred miles the water of the Congo can be recog- 
nized by its color. 

In the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope the temperature «f'^i^i^cSnt™ 
of the waters of this current is 66^.9, 3°.06 above that of 
the ocean. On the parallel of 30° S. latitude it is only 64o.4. 

From St. Paul de Loando the current runs the length of g^j^^^j//j.^"*(j°jf 
the coast of Africa, nearly N. W.; arriving' at Cape Lojiez °*^^- 
one portion is detached from the main current, and takes a 
more northerly direction. Eunning along the coast of the 
Gaboon as fiir as the Gulf of Biafra, it is lost in the eddies 
of the equatorial current ; this current should be named 
the " Current of /Southern Guinea^ 

Its principal direction is N. K. E. and N. E. near the coast 5 
sometimes jS". W. more in the offing and near the islands of 
the Gulf of Biafra. 

The limit of this current to seaward appears to be further Limit of this 

. current. 

to the east than Prince s Island. 

Its velocity, as a mean, is ten miles per day, though it velocity. 
attains often twenty-four mil^s. It is, however, very vari- 
able, and sometimes scarcely felt. Currents are found set- 
ting to the south in this part of the Gulf of Guinea ; but 
this is only exceptional. 

The temperature of the current of Southern Guinea, at Temperature. 
the limit near the coast of Gaboon, has been found to be 77°, 
and in the middle of the current 77° and 78°.8. It is then 
higher by 5° or 7° than the waters of the eciuatorial cur- 
rent. A knowledge of this current is useful to vessels 
bound to the Gaboon. 

Such are the currents of the South Atlantic Ocean. 

The vast space of sea which forms the center of the South Drift currents 

^ of the S.E. trades. 

Atlantic Ocean is occupied by the drift current of the S. E. 
trade-winds, the most decided directions of which are W. 

to S. W. and S. S.W., changing as its waters approach the 



134 CURRENTS — VELOCITIES SOUTH ATLANTIC. 

exterior current of the coast of Brazil, into whicli it empties, 
to return again to the E. by the traverse current of the 
Atlantic Ocean. 

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

Table of comparative mean velocUies of the currents of the 
southern hemisphere in ttventyfour hours. 

Miles. 

South Atlantic Current 15 

Current of Brazil 20 

Traverse Current of the Atlantic 15 

Current of Cape Agulhas 80 

Counter-current of the Cape of Good Hope 30 

Drift current of the S. E. trades 10 

Current of Southern Guinea 10 




yo 2 



CURRENTS 

Jll llio 

ATLANTIC OCKAX. 




JR^ffnnvff iy- B. CM-m*^. 



CUKRENTS' — VELOCITIES SOUTH ATLANTIC. 



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CHAPTEE III. 

NAVIGATION IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

As a general rule, in the navigation of the great seas of 
the globe, the necessity is recognized of entering the zone 
of the trade-winds when going from E. to W., and of keep- 
ing without this zone when navigating from W. to E.* In 
the one case it is desirable to reach this zone as quickly as 
possible ; in the other, to leave it as soon as possible. 

Having indicated the prevailing winds and currents which 
are met with in the Atlantic Ocean, we will now speak of 
the routes which should be taken to utilize the one and the 
other. 
îîoutes to tiie In going from the south of Europe to the joorts of Arch- 
ar.gei or Onega, angel or Onega, situated in the White Sea, the route will 
depend on the port of departure. The North Sea should be 
traversed when starting from ports situated on its borders ; 
or, if leaving the ports of the west of France, of Portugal, 
or Spain, pass to the westward of the British Islands. 

In every case, whether coming from the North Sea or 
from the ocean, it is advised t to obtain a good departure 
from Balta, the N. E. point of the Shetlands. Captain 
Eamage says that in starting from England this is a good 
precaution, but it should be taken with a view to verify the 
route to that point rather than as a necessity for the continu- 
ation of the voyage, as it often happens that these islands, 
hid in the fog, cannot be well recognized. The islands of Faroe 
can be made, especially when coming from the ocean. In 
every case soundings should be frequently taken when in 
the vicinity of either of these groui)s of islands. 

On the route from thence to Cape North, every opportu- 
nity for observing the variation of the needle should be 
taken advantage of, as this is very important in these local- 
ities. On arriving at Cape North a drift to the westward of 
the reckoning is generally found, which is attributed to the 
current setting to the W. or to the S. W. This may be 
due, however, in a great measure to errors in the magnetic 
variation, or to both of these causes combined. 

* We speak principally of navigation under sail. 
t Purdy's Memoir descriptive, &,c., page 80. 



NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO ARCHANGEL. 137 

To the west of Cape North there are two clifts, hijj^h and 
perpeudicular, the one at forty-two miles, the other twenty- 
one inih\s from the cape ; these clifts are often taken for 
Cape North, or for the cape called the Nordkyn, which is 
thirty-nine miles to the eastward. These two clifts are 
very uniform in appearance, and when known are a very 
useful point of de]iartnre for the cape. The land which 
separates these clifts appears irregular and resembles a 
succession of islands of about one-half the height of the 
clifts themselves. 

When abreast of the second clift, Cape North bears 
nearly S. E. by E. eighteen miles distant. This cape is com- 
paratively low, level on its summit, and recognizable as the 
only laud which presents a tabular form. 

Cape North may, besides, be known by three remarkable 
islets detached from the coast, named the Mother and 
Daughters. The Mother, which is in the center when bear- 
ing about S. eighteen miles distant, appears between the 
two little islets, a little more elevated than the coast behind 
it ; its upper extremity is of a conical form, with a flat sum- 
mit; its appearance is diflereut, however, viewed on diifer- 
ent bearings. 

In doubling Cape North keep at a moderate distance from 
the land, as in its vicinity it is frequently calm. Cape 
Nordkyn is thirty -nine miles from Cape North; between 
these two capes the two great bays of Parsanger and Laxa 
are situated. The land near Cape Nordkyn is high, and 
when abeam of it, at the distance of eighteen miles. Cape 
North api)ears comparatively low and flat, as we have re- 
marked above. 

From Cape Nordkyn in going to the White Sea, keep a 
moderate distance from the coast to avoid the calms which 
often exist near high land ; if at the commencement of the 
season, (the middle of the spring or the commencement of 
the summer,) and the wind is from the westward, trj^ to 
sight the Seven Islands, or rather the Island of Nagel, in 
order to pass inside the banks of ice, which drift at this 
season from the White Sea, driveu some miles from the 
coast by the currents of the river ; these, swelled by the 
melting snow, carry to the sea a large volume of water, and 
form near the coast a passage by which, with prudence and 
care. Sweet Nose can be reached without danger and without 
encountering many obstacles. It will be then possible to 



138 NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO ARCHANGEL. 

enter and remain securely iu the Bay of Sweet Nose 
(Sviatôi-Noss) until the drift ice has i^assed its northern 
l^oint and opened a passage towards the south. 

In keeping too far away from the land a risk would be 
run of either penetrating into the bank or being surrounded 
by immense quantities of ice. The greatest danger is run 
under these circumstances from the strain the ship has to 
support, as also the difticulty of extricating her from these 
banks. 

When before Sweet jSTose, to guard against the fog, so fre- 
quent in these localities, stand towards the Bank of Knock- 
John, keeping the lead going until soundings are struck on 
the bank; then follow its western edge, if the wind is 
ahead, bear away to the southward, tacking between the 
shore and the western edge of the banks until its southern 
extremity is attained. The tacks toward the coast should 
not be extended inside of fifteen fathoms, and those toward 
the bank not within ten fathoms, until arriving at the pitch 
of Cape Orlov, (Orloge Nose.) From this cape steer to pass 
the Three Islands, which can be known by the rocks sur- 
mounted by crosses placed near their eastern side, and by 
the narrow mouth of the Eiver Ponoi, opening between two 
high clifts ; from these islands steer for the Island of Sosnova, 
(or Cross I5) it is at this island, which can be recognized by 
the number of wooden crosses i3laced on it, that the last 
departure is taken. From this island to Point Cat Nose, or 
Blue Nose, the route is nearly S. S. W., but in the spring- 
there is frequently a strong current setting to the E. towards 
the Gulf of Mesheu, (or Mezene ;) it will be preferable to 
run at first a little more to the westward, then steer directly 
for Cat Nose. 

If on the route you meet with any ice it will be best to 
approach the coast of Lapland. When obliged to beat it is 
also best t keep on that coast where the tides are more 
favorable than on that of Archangel. 

On approaching Archangel, after passing tlie Cape of 
Cat Nose, (called also Winter Hills,) run parallel to the coast 
in keeping it at a little distance, until on the meridian of 
Point St. Nicholas ', in this i^osition await a pilot for the port. 

If, instead of going to Archangel, Onega is the port of 
destination, from Cross Island steer for Cape Onega, allow- 
ing for the current setting to the E. by steering a little 
more to the W^. than the direct route. Cape Onega is high 



NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO AUCII ANGEL. MV.) 

and covered with little trees, it will l)e known besides by 
the little Island of Kovestra, which is opposite to it and 
^•ery high ; it has a tower, and here the pilots for Onega are 
taken. 

From Rovestra steer towar<l Toint Orlotsna-Volock, 
which is high ; to the south of this point is the anchorage 
and village of Puzlackta ; the shelter is here good and it 
is frequented by ships which arrive too early in the season 
to go to Archangel ; keep then a moderate distance from the 
coast and run parallel to it ; double tlie point, which is quite 
projecting and forms a peninsula called Kimenskoi or Kis- 
miniskoi; the course then toward Onega will be about S. 
E. by S. in following the coast. The little Island of Purr- 
Luda or Ponade-Kio can be passed to the eastward or to 
the westward. Fronting the entrance of the River Onega 
is the islet of Kio, and inside the bar two others, the islets 
of Shakloui. If it is w islied to pass to the west of Pnrr- 
Luda, bring- these two islands in one, on a bearing of S. 
E. ^ E., which leads to the entrance of the river. 

To the east of Cape North, the flood runs to the S. E. and lif^ps (>» , fj» 

' coast 01 Laplanil 

to S. S. E. the length of the coast as far as Cape Orlov. and iu the winto 
In the Bay of Tana, at full and change, high water is at 
3h. ; at Ward-huus, at 4h. ; at Kilduiu, at 7h. 30m. ; in 
this last locality the tides fall two and a quarter to two and 
three-quarters fathoms ; at Three Islands high w^ater takes 
place at llh. 30m., it falls tw^o and a half fathoms ; the es- 
tablishment at Cross Island is 4h. 15m. ; at Cat Nose, 
3h. 30m. ; between these two points the flood sets to S. W. 
by W. 

On the bar at Archangel, the establishment is 6h. and 7h. 
30m. in the port. Between Cape Onega and Onega, the 
flow runs the length of the coast toward S. E. by !S. at the 
rate of two miles per hour, the tide falls one and one-eighth 
fathoms. We have considered that these indications of the 
tides might be useful to seamen going to the White Sea. 

In the routes from Europe to North America it has gener. Routes from 
ally been considered tliat the further north the port of de- Imerica." ^'"''' 
parture, the greater the chances of a quick passage. 

In the commencement of the year, it is recommended to At the com- 
keep to the north of the parallel of 46° or 47° N. latitude, ?i,e"year* "* 
until in about the longitude of 35^ W. ; then to descend to 
the parallel of 43°^., and keep on or near the parallel with- 
out going further to the northward, particularly in approach- 



140 NAVIGATION — ROUTES FUOM EUROPE TO N. AMERICA. 

ing the coast of North America, in order to pass well to the 
south of Sable Island, a dangerous sand-bank which can- 
not be too carefully avoided. In following this route, the 
northern limit of the Gulf Stream is avoided, and from the 
Bank of Newfoundland the arctic current, setting to the S. 
W., is taken advantage of. This route answers for the ports 
of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or the northern ports of 
the United States. 
Toward tiie Toward the end of the vear, a route further to the north 

end of tlie year. i • -r-i 

than the former is advised. In leaving Europe, steer to the 
N. W. until in the latitude of 55° N., and when on the me- 
ridian of 26° W., steer to the southward to cross the Banks 
of Newfoundland in latitude 46° ; then keep sufficiently to 
the southward to pass about sixty miles south of Sable 
Island, when steer for the port of destination. 

In these routes, it is particularly recommended never to 
X^ass to the north of Sable Island, on account of the fre- 
quent fogs in these localities, and the strong current set- 
ting to the S. W., which exist in its vicinity, the effects of 
which cannot be calculated. 
Route from In vicwiug the chart of the Atlantic Ocean, it is seen that 
fotmdiaBd or to from the entrance of the English Channel to Newfoundland 
sm . ^^^ (direct route is nearly W. 4° S. ; that to Cape Sable (Nova 
Scotia) it is about W. 9° S. Generally it is not possible to 
make these routes direct, and there is less difficulty and less 
time employed in following the curve. Under all circum- 
stances, the best route is that to the northward. In start- 
ing from the channel and steering to the N. W. it is proba- 
ble that the winds will be found blowing less directly from 
the W., and will be less contrary than in a lower latitude 
in proportion as you advance toward Davis's Strait, and in 
the end the currents and winds are favorable. Thus, in going 
from France to Newfoundland, it will always be advan- 
tageous to make the northern route. The rule which we lay 
down is founded on the remark made in England, that ships 
starting from Scotland always arrive sooner at Newfound- 
land than those sailing from the Channel. A well-known 
fact, besides, is that in the spring and summer the currents 
set generally from the entrance of Hudson's Bay, and from 
Davis's Strait toward the Atlantic Ocean the proof of the 
existence of these currents is the icebergs and fields of ice 
which are met with on the banks of Newfoundland from 
the month of May to that of August. We repeat, there is 



NAVI^rATlO^' — ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO N. AMERICA. 141 

then an advaiitaiic in jioin*»- to tli«^ nortli on sailing tVoni 
Europe. 

The route which should be tbllowed in going iïoni Europe 
to Newfoundland is nearly the same as we have above indi- 
cated for the route to the ports of North America during- 
the tirst mouths of the year ; that is, to keep above the par- 
allel of 46° or 47° until about the meridian of 37°, then a 
more southerly course can be made to reach the parallel of 
45°, in order to avoi<l the icebergs, for which a good lookout 
should be kept 5 keep about the parallel of 45°, but not to 
the southward of it, to the edge of the Great Bank. On this 
route, it is particularly between the parallels of 00° and 40° 
N. and between the meridians of 30° and 00° W. that a 
lookout should be kept for icebergs descending from the 
north towards the south. It is generally toward the month 
of April that the fishermen of the Great Bank leave Europe ; 
some start earlier. The Banks of Newfoundland are fre- 
quently covered Avith thick fog, which, from the spring to 
the month of December, lasts sometimes eight or ten days 
without interruption, and is often so dense that it is impos- 
sible to see a distance of sixty-five feet ; this fog resolves 
itself into rain upon the sails and rigging and falls drop by 
drop upon the deck. It is frequently calm wath a heav^- 
swell, and a continual fear is felt of being run down by some 
vessel or taken by the current on some bank, a double danger 
with no means of avoiding it, from the impossibilitj^ of per- 
ceiving objects at any distance. 

To these drawbacks should be added those occasioned by 
the currents which prevail in the vicinity of Newfoundland. 
They are often very strong and very irregular, setting at 
times toward the land, at times toward the offing; little 
confidence can be felt in those localities ; in addition to this, 
the current coming from the N. along the coast of Lab- 
rador detaches, towards the spring, immense fields of ice, 
which are taken to the south, and thus add another danger 
to those occasioned by the fog. Some of these masses 
ground in depths of from forty to fifty fathoms ; others are 
carried into the sea, where they are sometimes met with 
three hundred and seventy-five and three hundred and ninety 
miles from the coast. Fortunately this floating ice is most 
generally indicated, even in the haze and fog, by the brilliant 
and white reflection which it produces in the atmosphere 



142 NAVIGATION — ROILJTES FROM EUROPE TO N. FOUNDL'D. 

above the position which it occupies^ and by the noise of 
the breakers upon it. 

The vicinity of icebergs can be known, besides, by the 
intense cold existing for a great distance around them . These 
icebergs are preserved a long time, and are met even in the 
month of August. The apiDroach to the Great Bank is 
known by the sea birds which fly in troops from its edge. 
On this edge the bottom is of fine whitish sand speckled 
with black. 
Eoiite to the Ships goiug to St. Pierre, an island situated to the south 
PieiT° ^ "of Newfoundland, should, on leaving Europe, steer as we 
have directed above, then, when they have attained the mer- 
idian of 52° W., keeping on the parallel of 45° N. latitude, 
they will steer W. N. W., which will take them on Green 
Bank in soundings of about fifty-three fathoms. Continu- 
ing their course, when they reach the meridian of 55° 20', 
in the latitude 45° 35' the depth increases suddenly from 
fifty-three to eighty-eight fathoms, making twenty miles 
more on the same course, the depth diminishes again to 
forty-five, varying to thirty-five fathoms ; from this make 
twenty miles more on the same course, then steer directly 
for the Island of St. Pierre; in steering thus it will be nearly 
impossible to miss it. 

Looking on the chart of the Great Bank of Newfound- 
land it will be seen that the difference in the soundings 
w^hich we have given are produced by the ditch of deep 
soundings which separates Green Bank from St. Peter's 
Bank. This ditch extends from north to south between the 
meridians of 55° and 55° 20' of W. longitude and the i)aral- 
lels of 45° 10' and 46° 10' N. latitude, its length is about sixty 
miles ; its center is situated nearly in the latitude of 45° 52' 
and longitude 55° 10'. It is an excellent mark when going 
to the Island of St. Pierre or to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and a sure means of rectifying the position when observa- 
tions cannot be obtained, which happens often in these 
localities, where the fog is so frequent. In seeing the depth 
increase suddenly the sounding should not be discontinued ; 
some captains, in ignorance of this ditch, stop sounding as 
the depths increase to the west of Green Bank, and believe 
themselves at the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; 
this error causes them to run too long to the north and puts 
them on the coast to the east of Cape Eace, or on the rocks 
of Newfoundland. 



NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO (HILF OF ST. LAWRENCE. 143 

In going to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, after passing to the Kouto to tho 
south of the Yirgiii Rocks, which are on the Great Bank, rcncc! ' ^^ 
and then to the south of the Ishmd of St. Pierre, a course 
shoukl be steered half-way between Newfoundland and 
Cape lireton Island, recollecting' what has been said in a 
precedinf»- chapter upon the winds in these localities. It 
should be further remarked that on the south coast of New- 
foundland, to the west of Fortune Baj-, the ports are little 
known, and there are many rocks at their entrance, which 
cannot be seen in foggy weather, which is the most preva- 
lent on this coast. 

It appears that on the north part of tbe Great Bank of Currents on 

-KT ,> 1, 1 , . . T . r., r, ^-.x , ., <^tie Great Bank 

JScwtoundland the current is tound setting to S. S. \\ ., while of Newfonna- 
on its southern part it sets to the N. E., and that these cur- cinity! 
rents form in mingling eddies, which are very irregular ; the 
mean velocity of these currents is from eight to ten miles 
per daj", but sometimes they are found twenty-four and 
even thirty miles ; this also takes place in the localities of 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Thus in the vicinity of the Island 
of Breton the waters of the river St. Lawrence are directed 
toward the S. W. On the south coast of Sable Island, with 
the winds prevailing from S. and S. W. the current runs 
strong to the E. as for as the extremity of the Northeast 
Bar ', this current then meets the branch of that which, 
leaving the St. Lawrence, passes Cape Breton and sets 
strongly to the S. S. W. near the Northeast Bar of Sable 
Island, especially in April, May, and June. The waters of 
these currents mix, and it is possible that the Gulf Stream, 
which, on the parallel of 42° 30' runs to the N. N. E., mod- 
ifies the direction of the current of the St. Lawrence, setting 
to the S. S. W. and fiirces it to take a direction more to 
the W. 

The current from the Gulf of St. Lawrence runs most 
frequently toward the S. E., if it is not opposed by winds 
from the E., when it takes sometimes the contrary direction. 
It should be said, however, that the winds in the gulf, and 
even in the open sea, have such an influence on the cur- 
rents, that no precise statement of them can be made. 

It will be seen, after what we have said, how much the 
currents should be distrusted on the Great Bank and in 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They produce in the movement 
of the waters in the offing of this island constant variations. 



144 NAVIGATION — CUERENTS ON THE GEAND BANK. 

which often cannot be appreciated from want of observa- 
tions and foggy weather. The greatest care and prudence 
should therefore be observed in this dangerous navigation. 
Currents near isfear the cast coast of Newfoundland, the current from 

the coast 01 New- ' 

foundiand. Hudsou's Bay sets to the S. S. W. and S. as far as Cape Eace ; 
it turns this cape and is directed to the W. along the south- 
ern coast as far as the Islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. 
Near these islands it meets: 1st, the branch of the Hudson's 
Bay Current, which, having traversed the Straits of Belle 
He and turned the western extremity of Newfoundland, is 
directed toward the E. along its southern coast ; 2d, the 
general current of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, setting usually 
to the S. S. E. and to E. S. E. 

It is no doubt owing in a great measure to these so variable 
currents that so many ships are lost on the south coast of 
Newfoundland in the vicinity of Cape Pine. In fact, the 
ships which leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence are at first 
drifted to the east, then to the west, until they have passed 
to the east of the meridian of the Islands of St. Pierre and 
Miquelon. Then, with calms or light and head winds, they 
are carried insensibly to the west of their reckoning; and if 
without observations, which is frequently the case on account 
of the fogs, it results that, calculating on being to the east- 
ward of Cape Eace, and being in reality to the westward 
of it, in steering toward the north they are thrown on the 
coast at the moment when they suppose themselves in the 
open sea. 

It is even j)robable that on the meeting of the two currents 
running from different directions along the coast of New- 
foundland, the one from the W. may annul that from the E., 
which comes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or may give 
it a northerly direction. 

After the indications we have given, too much vigilance 
and care cannot be observed in navigating near the shores 
of this island ; for, in addition to the fogs which hide the 
land, one has to strive against the winds, the currents 
which are much influenced by them, and at last against 
the dangers which may result from encountering icebergs, 
drifted by these currents. 
General obser- In foggy wcathcr, or in the night, the Bermudas should 

vations on mak- it-ii • m i • 

ing the land of be api)roached with the greatest caution. To prevent being 
drifted unawares upon the reef, a good lookout should be 
kept by day for the land and Gibbs's Light-house, which 



KOUTKS TO TIIH HKimi'DAS. 145 

from tlic (»riin,u' rcsciiiblcs ;i sliij) uiMlcr sail, and at iii.i;lit to 
g<'t hold of tlic lii^lit as soon as possible. 

Tlie ostablisluiuMit of the light has iiecossaiily diminished 
tlie danii'er in making the land; uevertheless, there are stiil 
many i)re('antions to take in rnnning tor this island. 

In rnnning on the i)arallel of the liermndas, with a favor- 
able wind, if the land is not seen before night, and it is 
thonght to l)e near, a vessel in this position should not be 
hove to, especially with a fresh breeze, as she might be 
drifted l)y currents, the existence of which are probable, 
their direction apd force depending on the prevailing winds, 
lu this case, if it is desired to await the day, it will be 
better to make short tacks under easy sail ; otherwise, to 
make the light. 

The islands are generally very low, and cauuot be seen 
far from the deck of a small vessel ; besides, in the summer 
season thick fogs are frequent and add to the difficulty of 
making the land, unless the latitude is well ascertained. 

Soundings should be taken frequently from the time that 
the ship is supposed to be near the land. The greater num- 
ber of shipwrecks w hich have occurred on this island have 
l>een from a neglect of this precaution. 

Ships destined for the Bermudas from the ports of the Making the 
United States, or coming from the West Indies by the Ba- we't. 
hama Channel, should steer much to the S. of the direct 
route, and even to the S. S. E., until in a latitude three or 
four miles south of Cape Hatteras ; make then S. E. by E. 
until on the parallel of 32° or 32° 5' IS", latitude. Crossing 
the Gulf Stream in its greatest breadth, and where it would 
set principally to the E., will be thus avoided, and it will 
l>e crossed where its direction affects the latitude more than 
the longitude, which is important for vessels whicdi navi- 
gate by dead reckoning.* 

In making to the southw^ard and steering S. E. by E., you 
will make the islands twelve or fifteen miles Avest of their 
longitude and get hold of the light. 

The prevailing winds in this zone of the Atlantic being 
from the W. and IsT. W. in the winter, and from the S. W, 
in summer, it results that nearly all ships going to these 
islands make the land from the W., and place themselves ou 
about 08"^ W. longitude, from whence they steer directly 

^ Blunt's Coast Pilot. 
10 A O 



146 ROUTES TO THE BERMUDAS. 

to the E. Without being a geiiernl rule, this manner of 
making- the land has become almost general, and is that 
adopted i^articularlj^ by merchant vessels. 

The i^arallel of 32° 8' JST. being three miles to the south of 
all the dangers to the southwest of the island, appears to be 
the best to follow in making the land to the west. It is ne- 
cessarj" however, on this route, to keep always in mind that 
there is probably a current occasioned by the prevailing 
wind. Thus with the wind at IST. W., the parallel of 32° 8' 
X. can be taken ; if it is at S. W. that of 32° 2' îs". * 

When the winds are adverse or 6he weather very foggy, 
before making the land it will be prudent in the night not 
to go further north than the parallel of 32° 4', or that of 32° 
5' N., t and if the wind turns to tlie S. W., that of 32° should 
not be passed. When certain of the position, either of the 
parallels mentioned can be taken according to circumstances, 
and steer to the east; thus Wreck Hill will be made, a re- 
markable conical hill, with a volcanic appearance. It shonld 
bear to port, as should also Gibbs's Hill, the light-house 
on which can generally be seen before the land. 

With these two points the position can be rectified, and 
if the light-house only is seen, it must be recollected that 
the reefs which are on the west of the Bermudas extend to 
westward of the light-house at least twelve miles, and the 
soundings are too close to the edge of the reef to give suffi- 
cient warning. They should not be approached until the 
light-house or Gibbs's Hill bears ]Sr. E. by N. | 

* Blunt and other instructions, indicate in the same case, the parallel 
of 32° 5' N. The route on the parallel of 32° 2' would pass the meridian 
of Gibh's Light, at a distance from it of thirteen miles. The light is 
plainly visible at this distance. The light can then he seen fixed before 
and after the flashes, which cannot be done at a greater distance. This 
remark is important. It is understood that the parallel to be chosen 
should depend on the j)revailing winds, their force, and the probable 
time that they have been blowing, up to the day of making the land. 
From this may be derived the current against which it is necessary to 
guard. We think, however, that when the latitude is certain, the par- 
allel of 32° 2', or that of 32° 3' are those which should be preferred, when 
there is a good breeze from the S. W., or when making the land at 
night. 

t The currents which run to the N. E. are at times very strong in the 
vicinity of the Bermudas, and ships leaving America are drifted, as a 
mean, one hundred and fifty miles to the eastward of their tracks. 

t Blunt, Purely, Thomas Leon. 



KOUTES TO THE IJEIÎMIDAS. 147 

Witli tills bcaiiiii;" you can vn\i (Icpciidiiiii on tlic land, 
and wlicn the light-lioiise or (îibbs's Hill is on with ^^'^('(•k 
Ilill, or in the night when the light boars N. W. by N,, you 
will be abreast of the southwest breakers, the only danger to 
be feared on the south side of the island. It extends one 
and half miles from the south j^oint of the Island of Ber- 
muda.* 

After passing this bearing a short distance haul up along 
the coast of the island, keeping one or one and a half miles 
from it.* Eun thus as far as Castle Harbor, and until St. 
David's Head bears jST. or until Cape Garnet and Cape St. 
David are ou the same line running along the coast. Do 
not go inside of ten or eleven fathoms during the day, and 
twelve to thirteen fathoms at night. 

When to the southeast of Castle Harbor heave to for a 
pilot, and if at night make a night-signal and hoist a light 
to show your position. When hove-to be careful not to 
drift to leeward, as the current generally runs towards the 
E.; with the pilot on board he will take the vessel to Mur- 
ray's anchorage, the harbor or road of St. George's, as may 
be desired. By day, if pressed for time, or if the pilot does 
not come off, you can pass round the reefs after having 
passed the island on the southeast side of Castle Harbor, 
double St. David's Head, outside which the reefs stretch 
abont three-fourths of a mile, and anchor in nine or ten 
tathoms in St. George's Road. 

To take this anchorage, which we would only advise 
during the day, when not wishing to await a pilot, (which 
will not always be prudent,) it will be necessary, as in all 
other anchorages of the Bermudas, to be guided by the eye 
in selecting an anchorage where the ground is not foul. 
The clearness of the water and the wiiite color from the 
sand, indicate plainly the places where the anchor can be 
dropped without risk. 

In going from any port of Europe to the Bermudas, steer ^Making'the 

® '^ ^ -^ ^ ' laud to tbe east. 

directly for the island as long as the wind is favorable. 
Should it become contrary, instead of working to wind- 
ward it will be desirable to run to the south and take the N. 
E. trades, keeping in them sufficiently long to enable you on 
running to the northward to cut the parallel of 32° 8' N. in 

* Bhint, Purely, Thomas Leon. 



148 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO UNITED STATES. 

the longitude of 67° 40' W.* The land will then be made 
to the Avest, as above. 

If the wind is favorable daring the whole route, the land 
can be made to the east as well as to the west ; running for 
the island place the ship between the parallels of 32° 15' and 
32° 4' X. latitude. This route will lead a few miles to the 
south of St. David's Head.t 

In making the land at night be careful not to go to the 
north of the last-mentioned parallel, in order to keep within 
sight of the land and the light. If on the route for making 
the land to the east the wind becomes contrary, there is a 
fog, haze, or bad weather, you should, more especially at 
night, not go to the north of the parallel 32° or 32° 4' N., and 
if then you get to the westward the land can be made to the 
west, as before directed. 

We terminate these remarks on the Bermudas by coun- 
seling navigators never to seek the anchorage during the 
night unless the weather is sufficiently clear to admit of 
their constantly knowing their position by bearings, until 
the pilot comes on board. 
Routes from In tlic routc from Europe to tlie ports of the United 
United states. Statcs, it is ucccssary to avoid the bed of the Gulf Stream, 
for in event of a calm or a contrary wind the current would 
sweep you rapidly to the E. In going then to any of the 
northern or central ports of the United States, follow the 
routes heretofore directed, passing to the south of Sable Is- 
land to the east of the banks of St. George and Kantucket, 
and from there navigate in the current which sets to the S. 
near the coast of the United States, keeping sufficiently near 
the coast to avoid entering the Gulf Stream. By navigating 
thus, the passage to New York, the Delaware, and the other 
l)orts situated to the south of these will be much shortened. 

^ Blunt. — It appears to us that the distauce to the W. of the ishiud 
given for cutting the parallel of 32° 8' N. is too great, and that 66° 40', 
or 65° 40', would be sufâciently far to the west. This places you one hun- 
dred and six, and forty -sis miles to the westward of the group. If the 
weather is good and the ship furnished with chronometers, we would 
advise making the laud to the eastward, and to leave the N. E. trade 
when in a position for reaching the parallel indicated for making the 
land to the east. 

t It appears to us that there is less danger always in making the laud 
to the east than to the west, and in reality there is nothing in favor of 
the latter but the wind generally blowing from the W., which is more 
favorable and permits a more direct route. 



Tîoi'TES Fi;o:\r eukope to united states. 140 

At any latc. if it is «Icsiivd to cross this cuncnt in ji'oinu' to 
tlio west it slionl<l be done as rapidly as possible. 

There is another route through the trade-winds which, 
althouiih the distauce to be run is greater, appears to us pre- 
ferable in ease the wind is not fair, and when destined for the 
southern ports of the United States; for if the time eni- 
l)loyed in a passage is in direct ratio to the distance, it is in 
inverse ratio of the speed with which the ship goes from the 
]toint of departure to that of her destination. 

On leaving Europe, if the winds are not favorable for 
inaking a direct route to the United States, we believe that 
it will be more advantageous to run to the S. or S. W., 
according to the prevailing wind, and got in the trades as 
soon as possible. The best route for reaching the zone 
where they blow, is that between the Azores and ^Madeira, 
and between Madeira and the Canaries, avoiding the pas- 
sage between the latter and the coast of Africa ; for in the 
])roximity of this coast the winds change their direction 
and lose much of their force. 

Once in the region of the trades, make the route most 
suitable for reaching the port of destination, only taking 
the precaution in crossing the Gulf Stream and nniking the 
land to be about thirty-six miles to windward of the port of 
destination. 

It is very frequent that this passage can be made without 
descending to the trade-winds, especially in the forty or 
fifty days which follow the equinoxes, when the wind is fre- 
quently at y. E. ; so that ships starting at this time can 
make the route by the high latitudes. However, if during 
the passage head-winds are encountered, it will be better to 
go south for the trades than to beat against these winds. 

In the spring, summer, and autumn, the seasons when th^ 
N. E. trades extend to the parallels of 28° to 30° X. latitude, 
the route through the trades will be very advantageous, 
particularly when destined for the southern ports of the 
United States. 

Finally, if the winds permit, in going from the ports of 
P^urope to those of the United States, a west course is the 
one to be followed ; if the winds do not permit, in the season 
of the equinoxes, take that nearest to it. In every other 
case, preference should be given to a course between south 
and west to reach the trade-winds. 

The nu*an of the jtassages from Liverpool to Xew York 



150 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO UNITED STATES. 

made by the packet ships in six years is forty clays.* The 
following may be cited as fine passages : The Charlotte 
made two voyages from Bremen to Kew York in thirty- 
three and twenty-eight days; the Alexander, from the Weser 
to New York, was twenty-seven days ; the Clémentine, from 
Bremen to Baltimore, was twenty-nine days.t On the retnrn 
we find the following : The JSfew Tori; from New York to 
Liverpool, in less than fifteen days; the Mary Catherine, 
from Charleston to Liverpool, in nineteen days ; the Mar- 
mion, in eighteen days between the same i)orts.| 
tke porïl/Tbe ^^ ^be rctnm from tlie ports of the United States to 
Euro *e ^^^^^^ ^"^ Europe, the currents which set to the S. near the coast 
should be crossed as quickly as possible, the Gulf Stream 
entered, and steer to the IST. to get out of its influence, as 
in the region which it occupies there is much bad weather 
and a liability to hurricanes in the months of July, August, 
September, and October. In the other months, it is our 
opinion, that with a good ship the course of the Gulf 
Stream should be followed, Avhich will much shorten the 
passage. When on the meridian of 38° W. longitude, steer 
to pass to the N. of the Azores, and from thence, according 
to the winds, follow the course for the port of destination. 
On this route one is greatly favored by the winds from W., 
variable to S. W. and N. W. The mean of all the passages 
made during six years by the New York packet ships was 
twenty-three days, but the passage has been made in nine- 
teen, eighteen, and even in fifteen days. 

The same passages, made by steamers of that time, give 
the following results : § 

From east to west. 

The longest Tlie shortest 
time. time. 

Days. Days. 

Passages of the Great Westei-n from 

Bristol to New York 21^ 13 

Passages of the Royal William from 

Liverpool to New York 21^ 18 J 

Passages of the Liverpool from Liver- 
pool to New York 18^ 1(> 

* Hodgson's Letters on North America, vol. ii, p. 345. 
t Journals of ships of commerce of the Hanse Towns. 
t Liverponl Journal, January, 1824. 
§ Anwkan Almanac Rejmsitovy of Useful Knowledge, 1841. 



UOITKS I'lJOM INITKI) STATES To EUKOTK. l.")l 

Thf loiiiicst 'I'lic shortest 
tiin»'. time. 

Dai/a. Dai/n. 

P;iss;iiivs of the Jiriti.sh Quant IVom 

Portsmouth to New York L'O.] U 

Ft'om ire-st to cast. 
I'iissajies ol' the Great Western from 

New York to Bristol 15 12 

Passa.ues of the Hoyal William from 

New Y'ork to Liverpool 17^ 14^ 

Passages of the Liverpool from New 

York to Liverpool 17i 13^ 

Passages of the British (Jueeii from 

New Y'ork to Liverpool *. 22^ ' 13A 

The regular line of steamers between Liverpool and Bos- 
ton, via Halifax, made the passage in fourteen dajs, leaving 
the 3d and IStli of each month. Another regular line of 
steamers between Havre and New York made the passage 
in twenty-tive to thirty days, leaving the 1st, 8th, IGth, and 
24th of each month. 

In 1840 a line of steamers, carrying the mail between 
Liverpool and Halitax, Avas established; in 1842 the mean 
of their i>assages from east to west was thirteen days six 
hours, that of the return voyage eleven days tive hours. 

In leaving Europe for the ports of the Caribbean Sea or-g^{|,°p^^^Y^ ^™J'^ 
the Gulf of Mexico, as soon as in the Atlantic, ships should c^^ff/ J Mexico'^ 
direct their course to the southwest, in order to reach the 
region of the N. E. trades as <piickly as possible. 

On this part of the route the coast of Africa should not 
be approached too closely, as the currents near it run 
obliqnel}' toward the coast, and the winds also take a direc- 
tion more toward the W. If it is necessary to go as far as 
the Canaries to find the tra<les, pass to the west of this 
archipelago. 

Once in the trades, if going to the Windward Islands, 
steer directly for the point of destination, in keeping, from 
the month of May to the month of December, as long as 
possible on the parallel of 19° or 20° N. latitude. From De- 
cember to June, on the contraiy, a lower parallel should be 
followed. In approaching the Caribbean Sea the currents 
should be considered, particularly if a ship is navigating by 
dead reckoning, which will always place the position by ac- 
count to the east of the true position, so that if navigating by 



152 IIOUTES FEOM EUROPE Ï0 THE WEST INDIES. 

dead reclioning it would be well to add twelve miles a day 
to tlie run made to the west, as an allowance for current. 

If the ship is destined for the larger islands of the West 
Indies or for the Gulf of Mexico, enter the Caribbean Sea 
by the passage between Guadeloupe and Antigua, or be- 
tween St. Martin and Anguilla. This is invariably the en- 
trance preferred in going to St. Thomas, Porto Ilico, Port 
au Prince, Kingston, Havana, Tampico, Vera Cruz, and 
New Orleans. 

In the season of the trades, from March to September, 
the passage can be made to the north of the Virgin Islands 
and Great Antilles, and through the Old Bahama Channel. 
This route, though shorter than the preceding, appears to 
us in reality less advantageous, from the many dangers and 
difficulties which it presents. 

Those destined for La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Carthageua, 
or any of the ports of Venezuela, generally enter the Carib- 
bean Sea by the channel between Santa Lucia and St. Vin- 
cent, or that between Grenada and Tobago. 
EoutefromtLe lu leaving the United States or the Bermudas for the 
from the Bermu- Wiudward Islauds, a course should not be steered directly 
Indies and ^uff for tlicsc islauds, but first get to the eastward in running- 
of Mexico. g^ j^ |£ ^^^ wind iiermits, or by working to windward in the 

variable winds, until sure that in traversing the trade- winds 
you will be able to fetch to windward of that one of the 
islands to which you are destined, even sljonld the trades be 
at E. S. E. or S. E. ; besides this the current setting to the 
W. should be taken into account; this current is general, 
and has a velocity of at least twelve and sometimes twenty- 
four miles i)er day. 

In going to the Great Antilles follow the same directions, 
and pass to the north or south of the Great Antilles accord- 
ing to the season, whether of hurricanes or that of N. winds. 
In the latter case you will enter the Caribbean Sea by the 
Mona Passage, or by the one of those to the northward of 
Santo Domingo (Silver Cay, Turk's Island, Caicos, or 
Crooked Island Passages) which may appear most suitable. 
Crooked Island Passage is taken by preference by those 
going to the Gulf of Mexico or the Havana. 

In leaving the United States for the Havana or the Gulf 
of Mexico yon can also pass through the jSTorthwest Provi- 
dence Channel, and on reaching the Florida Channel, keep 
along the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank, or, if 



IJOUTKS 1"IÎ():\I KUKOl'E TO HAVANA. 153 

not (Irawiii^- too iiiucli water, cross it, as also the Salt Cay 
JJaiik, and. passiiiu' aloiiu' tlio north side of Cuba, make 
Havana. Vou can. besides, by takin»;' the Crooked Island 
Passage, reacli Havana through the Old ISahania Channel. 
AVe only i)oint out. however, this route.* 

In leaving lOurone the general route from Novend>er to Kout's (Vom 

"^ "- Eiimixi to (iui- 

July will be to take the most direet line t(> the parallel ot aua. 
l()o N., between the meridians of 44° and 40° W., so as to 
<a-oss the belt of calms to the westward of its greatest 
breadth, the most difticult point of crossing. When on the 
parallel of 1(P keep a point or a i^oint and a half more to 
the south than the direct route, to balance the current, Avhicli 
in general runs to the X- W., so as to place you on the par- 
allel of ."P or ."P 30' about one hundred and tifty miles from 
the land; then run to the west to nine or ten fathoms of 
water, to recognize the land. 

From the month of July to Novend^er the following route 
might be adopted from xjrefereiice, and often with advant- 
age: Pass about four hundred and fifty miles to the west 
of the Cape Yerd Islands, then steer to the south, cross the 
zone of variable winds and reach the S. E. trades, which at 
this season are found as far as 5° or 6° and even 7° or 8° 
N. of the Equator ; having these winds steer to the west, 
keeping between the Equator and the parallel of 3° 30' IST. 
until striking soundings in seven or eight fathoms. 

In leaving the Windward Islands for Europe the ordinary Routes ivom 
route is between Guadeloui>e and Montserrat, from thence to Europe, 
with the winds from E. to X. E. run to the north, always on 
the starboard tack, to get as soon as possible out of the zone 
of the trade-\vinds. On reaching the variable winds follow 
the directions given on the route from the United States to 
Europe. 

In leaving Jamaica it is customary to pas8 through the 
Windward Passage, between this Island, Santo Domingo, 
and Cuba, then, according to the prevailing wind, take any 
one of the Bahama Island Passages, when, by running on 
the starboard tack, you will pass through the trade-winds as 
quickly as possible. 

In the season of the northerly winds (principally from 
November to February) the passage can be made by dou- 

* For these routes see Le Manuel de ht Xaviç/atiori dani^ la Mer des An- 
//7/<.s, cliap. viii. 



154 ROUTES FROM THE WEST INDIES TO EUROPE. 

bling- Cape St. Antonio and passing- tbiough the New Ba- 
hama Channel. 

If going from Jamaica or Cuba to the Windward Islands 
the same route is to be pursued as that in leaving the Ca- 
ribbean Sea, by one of the passages to the northward of 
Santo Domingo, or by the, jSTew Bahama Channel ; from 
thence run to the north to get out of the trades, and work suffi- 
ciently to the eastward to fetch to the east of the Wind- 
ward Islands. 

Ships which leave La Guayra, Porto Cabello, orCumana, 
for Europe, leave the Caribbean Sea by the Mona Passage, 
formed by the Islands of Santo Domingo and Porto Eico; 
from this keep to the north, so as to cut the parallel of 40° 
IsT. between the meridians of 28° to 33° W., nearly. Leav- 
ing Santa Marta, Carthagena, or ports more to the west- 
ward, the Caribbean Sea can be left by the Windward Pas- 
sage, or by the New Bahama Channel. This last seems to 
lis preferable. 

Ships leaving the Virgin Islands or Porto Rico make 
directly to' the north on the starboard tack, to get as soon 
as possible out of the region of the trade-winds, and follow 
nearly the same route as in departing from the Great An- 
tilles for Europe or for the Windward Islands. 

Leaving Cuba, or the Gulf of Mexico, shijîs enter the At- 
lantic Ocean through the Bahama Channel, and steer to- 
ward the northeast to leave the Gnlf Stream. The route 
then is east, passing to the south of the Bermudas, and cut- 
ting again the Gulf Stream in the vicinity of the Azores. 

We have passed quickly over the navigation in the Ca- 
ribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, having given in detail the 
navigation of these two seas in the Manuel de la Navigation 
dans la Mer des Antilles, c&c, to which we w^ould refer navi- 
gators who may be anxious to make it a study. 

Following, is some general information on the passages 
from Europe to the West Indies and Gnlf of Mexico and 
the return : 

Going. 

From the mouth of the Elbe to Havana, iifty-uiue days. 

From Hamburg to La Guayra, fifty days. 

From Brest to Santo Domingo, forty-six days. 

From Havre to Yera Cruz, forty days. 

From Brest to Martinique, twenty-seven days. 



lîOlTKS FKÔM KllîOPK T» ) SOUTH AMEKICA. 1.") 

Till' loii^i'st passades Iiunc bccu lorty-six: days. Tlic 
shortest twenty-seven and twenty-eight days. In fourteen 
voya<ies from the i)orts of Brest, Lorient, and lîoehefort to 
this island the mean is thirty-two days. 

]\('funiiii(/. 

From lia\ana to the month of tlie Elbe, forty-nine days. 

From Kingston to Brest, thirty-two days. 

From Havana to Gibraltar, forty-seven days. 

From Vera Cruz to London, forty-two days. 

From (xuadelonpe to l>rest, thirty-seven and twenty-eight 
days. 

From J*ort au Prince to Jîrest, twenty-nine days. 

From Martinique to Brest, thirty days. 

From St. Thomas to Hamburg, generally, forty-five days. 

A voyage has been made in thirty -six days by a Prussian 
ship, the UUzabeth Louise, Captain Kasten. 

There is a regular line of steam packets between South- 
ampton and Tampico, by way of the West Indies. Their 
trips are made as follows : 

Going, forty-six days, touching at Funchal, Barbados, 
Grenada, (with a branch for the Small Windward Islands 
and St. Thomas, La Guayra, Trinidad, and Demerara,) from 
Grenada to Jacmel, Kingston, Havana, and TauiiMco, 
leaving twice a month, returning from Tampico via Nassau 
and the Bermudas. 

There is also from Havre to the Havana a reguhir line of 
steam packets, -whicli make the direct route in thirty or 
thirty-five days by the Old Bahama Channel. 

Ships leaving F]urope for the ports of South America, as k ou tes from 

Europe to tlio 

Ivio Janeiro or Buenos Ayres, should run between south ports of south 

and west to reach as soon as possible the X. E. trade-winds. 

passing between the Azores and Madeira, and Madeira and 

the Canaries and to the west of the latter, if no stoppage is 

to be made there. From thence steer to cross the Equator 

after passing the zone of variable winds near this great 

oircle. 

For a long time it has been the rule to cross the line in where the 
from 18° to 20° W. longitude. Numerous facts* have be"ro'ssedf 
proved that it is preferable to cross the line in from 23° to 

* The routes made by the packets to Brazil, the mean of their jiassages 
to Rio Janeiro being froni tliirty to thirty-iive days. 



156 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO SOUTH AMERICA. 

28° W. In fact, the zone of variable winds is narrower be- 
tween tliese meridians than toward the coast of Africa, 
and ships often pass, withont experiencing calms from the 
îsT. E. to the S. E. trade-winds, the change taking place in a 
squall. As to the fear of being drifted to the W., and to- 
ward Cape St. Eoque, by the equatorial current, it appears 
that this has been much exaggerated, and that, on the 
other hand, the trades in this locality blow much more from 
the E., which would not indicate any difficulty in doubling 
Cape St. Eoque. A general remark may be made, that the 
winds in the open sea, on the coast of Brazil, blow nearly 
perpendicular to the coast, principally from the month of 
October to March. During this period, then, one can ap- 
proach the land without fear, the W'inds being generally 
from IST. E. to E. X. E., and the current near the coast run- 
ning from the N. toward the S. ; thus, as Ave have said, the 
route will be most easy. From March to October, on the 
contrary, the winds blow from E. to E. S. E., and the cur- 
rent near the coast running from S. towards the N. it will 
be preferable, bound to Eio Janeiro or Buenos Ayres, to 
keep one hundred and twenty or one hundred and Mty 
miles from the land in the general current of the coast of 
Brazil, and to pass to the west of the Island of Trinidad. 
Ships bound round Cape Horn, whether they come from 
Eio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, or elsewhere, should approach 
the coast of Patagonia, and keep within at least one hun- 
dred miles of it, to avoid the heavy sea raised by the winds 
from the W. which i^revail, and also to turn to advantage 
the variations of the winds on this coast ; they will pass be- 
tween the Falkland Islands andTierra del Fuego, and, gen- 
erally, to east of Staten Island, the Straits of Le Maire being 
often difficult to pass.* 
Route from In leaving the ports of South America for Europe, the 
to Europe. routcs to be taken depend on the latitudes of the ports. 

Ships leaving the ports of Brazil situated to the north of 
Point Olinda, can in general take the starboard tack, double 
the coast, and steer directly to the ]Sr. 

Those leaving the ports of Brazil situated to the south of 
this point, are forced often to take the port tack and run to 
the southward to get clear of the coast. Sometimes the wands 
from N. E. oblige them to continue on this tack for tAvelve 
or fifteen days, and to run to the southeast or south-south- 

* liistruciions on Patagonia, by King. 



lîOlTKS FROM sol Til AMKIÎU'A TO EUKOPK. IT)? 

i'iist MS far as tltc parallel ol L'S^or-lt-, and even to .■'>-^ S. lati- 
tudo. Keep on this tack until you reach tlie nu'iidiau of .MP 
W., oi- work to windward as far as the same meridian, so that 
on iioing- on the starboard tack you will }>e nearly certain 
of donblin»^- tlie Island of Trinidad. In proportion as you 
.U'o to the north you are assisted by the winds hauling to 
the E., and it is very rare that you cannot on this tack pass 
to the eastward of Fernando de Xoronha, and cross the line 
between the parallels of 28-' and 'XP W. longitude. From 
thence, traverse the /one of variable winds, which is gener- 
ally narrow to the west of the meridian of 28°, and continue 
on the starboard tack with the N. E. trades, until on the 
parallel of oO'^ X. latitude. 

When without the trades steer for the port of destination, 
passing either inside or to the north of the Azores.* After 
Avhat has been said there can be no difficulty in making the 
routes from the ports of Brazil, when leaving ports more to 
the south or coming from Cape Horn; the westerly winds 
prevailing in that zone will facilitate the route as far as the 
zone of the S. E. trades. 

From tifteen passages made from ditterent ports of Eui-ope 
to Eio Janeiro, the mean duration of the voyage was fifty 
days. Many voyages have been made from the west coasts 
of France and England in from forty to forty-two days. The 
packets from England to Kio Janeiro made the passage in 
thirty-five days. 

Gohig. 

From Brest to St. Catherine, seventy-seven days. 

From the Strait of Gibraltar to St. Catherine, tifty-three 
days. 

From Havre to jMaranham, forty-three days. 

From jNUarseille to Eio Janeiro, sixty-five days. 

From Bordeaux to Cape St. Augustine, forty-five days. 

From Bordeaux to Cape St. Antoine, sixty-four days. 

From Eio Janeiro to St. Catherine, six days. 

From Brest to Montevideo, fifty-seven days. 

From Brest to Cayenne, thirty-one days. 

From the ports of Europe to Cape Horn, the mean, eighty- 
two days. 

* For more ample details see the rilote du Brésil, by Admiral Baroii 
Koussiu. 



158 EOUTES FROM EUROPE TO THE OOAST OF AFRICA. 
Regular lines of steamers. 

From Havre to Pernambuco, making the route direct, from 
forty to forty-five days, toiiclnug at Baliia, Eio Janeiro, and 
Buenos Ayres. 

From Eio Janeiro to Buenos Ayres seven days. 

From Falmouth to Buenos Ayres, fifty days, touching at 
Funchal, Santa Cruz, (Teneriife,) Bahia, and Eio Janeiro.. 

Returning. 

From Montevideo to Eio Janeiro, eleven days. 
From Eio Janeiro to Cherbourg, fifty-eight days. 
From Eio Janeiro to Biest, forty-eight days. 
From ports of the north of the coast to Europe, the mean 
of the voyages were from thirty-three to thirty-seven days. 
From Montevideo to Ilavre, eighty three dajs. 
From Maranham to Havre, sixty-five days. 
From Cape Horn to Eio Janeiro, eighteen days. 
From" Cape Horn to Europe, seventy-three days. 

Regular line of steam pacl^ets. 

From Eio Janeiro to Havre direct, the voyage was forty- 
eight to fifty days. Departure every twenty days. 

These data are sufficient to give a general idea of the voy- 
ages from Europe to the coast of South America. 

We will now speak of the routes from the ports of Europe 
to that portion of the coast of Africa situated to the north 
of the Equator. 
Routes liom Navigators leavin g Europe, taking their departure from the 

Europe to the " i, ± 7 c? j. 

ports on the ports of the Channel, or those of the Bay of Biscay, should 

coast of Africa, ^ ' J .n 

north of the call to mind what has been said concerning the currents in 
these localities. After doubling Cape Finistère, according 
to the season, thirty-five or sixty miles to the westward,, 
steer between south and southwest, avoiding a too near ap- 
proach to the coast of Portugal, especially during the win- 
ter, so as to pass either to the east or to the west of Madei- 
ra, or to make the Canaries, as is generally customary with 
ships bound for the coast of Africa. 

One may j)ass indifferently either to the west of these 
islands or between them, there being no daggers in the 
channels which are not apparent and close to the shore. 

I have traversed each of them, and the channel which 
appears to me the most desirable, when passing through 



ROUTES fko:m i:ui{<»i'e r<> the coast of afkica. 15!> 

the ini'liii)rl;i.u() witlioiit stoppiiiii', is that loniicd by ihv 
Islands of I'ahiia and Uioiio on the west, and (îoincrii 
on tho oast. 

In the otlu'i- ohannols, altor i'loaiin<i' thoni to the south it 
is rare not to experience cahns under the lee made by the 
high islands, with a heavy swell which is very trying to the 
masts. This is especially the case with the winds from N. 
to N. PI, which, divided by the islands into two currents, 
do not again join in a common direction until a consider- 
able distance to the southward of them. 

In the months of November and December it is prefer- 
able, with bad weather, to pass entirely .to the westward of 
these islands for fear of gales from the S. E., which in that 
season are fre<iuent. 

If it is desired to touch at the Canaries, the best anchor- 
age is that of.Palmas in the Grand Canary. This town 
offers more resources than that of Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, 
and in its bay one can make sail at any time, which is not 
the case at Santa Cruz — an anchorage resorted to from 
custom, and a very dangerous one in a S. E. gale. 

In leaving the Canaries, if bound to St. Louis, Corée, &c., Routes fiom 

... , , o, , TXT c, .-, XX- -,. the Canaries to 

the course will be S., S. by Vv ., or S. S. W ., according as any ix.int ncrtu 
you may pass to the westward or through the channels of 
the group. 

Alter passing the imrallel of 19°, that of the southern 
extremity of Arguin Bank, keep gradually from the south 
toward the east, making allowance for the polar current of 
the N., in which jou should keep, making St. Louis a little 
to the north of its parallel ; in going to Corée make Cape 
Verd. 

If bound to points more to the south than Gorée, the 
Gambia or Sierra Leone, for example, or to a point on the 
coast of Liberia, the route as far as Cape Verd would be 
the same; for it is generally made, except when touching 
at the Islands of Cape Verd. At anj^ rate, if it is not 
desired to make either of these points, it will be better to 
pass nearer to Cape Verd than to the archipelago, as 
the breezes are more established and fresher on the coast. 

From Cape Verd the navigation becomes in a measure 
local ; easy with the winds from N. E. in the flue season, 
difficult with those froui the S. W. during the winter. 

Ships bound to the trading stations on the north coast k„ui.s lor 
of Guinea, to the islamls of the Gulf of Biafra, or to the S'^o 



the ucirtli C( ;i«t 
iiinea. 



160 ROUTES FROM CAPE VERD TO N. COAST OF GUINEA. 

Gaboon, after passing Cape Verd, will descend as far as 
Cape Palmas, either with favorable winds from October to 
May, or with head-winds i)rincipally during June, July, 
August, and September, when they blow from S. W., W. 
S. W., W., and W. IST. W., interrupted by calms. In this 
season it is well to keei) three hundred miles from the coast. 

Then direct the course so as to pass in sight of Cape 
Palmas, or, at most, not over sixty miles from it. At this 
distance the Current of ISTorthern Guinea will be taken, 
which is only a prolongation of the polar current of î^orthern 
Africa, directed toward the E. and E. K E. from 13° or 14° 
of longitude. 

Before reaching the parallel of Cape Palmas, as we have 
said, the prevailing winds are from S. W. to W. S. W. ; 
winds and currents will then be favorable for reaching any 
of the points of Northern Guinea, but in, this route, one 
should not descend further to the south than 2° N. latitude, so 
as not to encounter the equatorial current setting to the W. 
Thus, as soon as the parallel of Cape Palmas is reached, 
which can be passed in sight, if bound to the Ivory Coast, 
the Eactories, or the Slave Coast, you can navigate at any 
distance from the laud, but always to the northward of 2° 
N. latitude. The best mode of navigating on this coast is 
to keep it in sight, about ten to fifteen miles distant at the 
most, and to approach it within one or two miles when 
thirty or forty miles to the west of the point of destination. 

In estimating the route, the velocity of the current, which 
is twenty or thirty miles per day, should be considered, for 
it is very necessary to make the land well to the west of 
the point of destination, and guard against passing to the 
eastward of it. 

If going to the islands of the Gulf of Biafra, or to the 
Gaboon, after doubling Cape Palmas, steer to the east, keep- 
ing between the parallels of 2° and 3° IST. latitude as long as 
possible, according to the island you wish to make, then 
cross obliquely the space between 2° IS", and the Equator, 
and run to windward of the port of destination, in order to 
make it from the south. Follow the same directions for the 
islands in the Gulf of Biafra. In the vicinity of these 
islands, the Current of the Southern Guinea sets to the N. E., 
and at times to N. I^. E. ; the winds will also be found from 
S. S. W., hauling sometimes to S. on approaching the 
Equator. 



ROUTES FROM K. TO W. IN GULF OF ClUNKA. Kll 

111 ,ii«>iiii; iVom riiiicc's* Island to the (iaboon you tra- 
verse tlieCiinent of Southern Guinea, Avhicli runs to tlu^ N. 
JO. and to the X. A\'., and sometimes to the K. ; it is neces- 
sary, then, to make the hmd to the south of the river, to 
connterbahince the elteots of the current. In tlie bij>ht of 
the (.îulf of Biafra the currents are variable, although as 
high as Fernando Po, and between that island aud the coast, 
they run nuist frequently to the E. N. E. and to the N. E. 
If, then, it is wished to descend to the south from these 
localities, it m ill be necessary to work to Avindward a short 
distance from the coast of Gaboon in order to profit by the 
alternate breezes and the diminished strength of the cur- 
rent, and to take advantage of the tides. The C-urrent of 
Northern Guinea, in times past, was the bugbear of navi- 
gators, who supi)osed that once within the gulf, there was 
no exit, except with the greatest difficulty. 

When leaving a point to the east of the north coast of Routes for re- 
Guinea for a point on the same coast situated to the west, it to""4eft *i™M^e 
is necessary to ruu on the starboard tack a sufticieut distance *^"'^of ^^^°^"' 
to get out of the current of Northern Guinea, enter the equa- 
torial current, and, according to the season of the year, cross 
the line and i)ass to the south, iu order to get the winds 
from the S. to the S. S. W. ; then take the port tack, keep- 
ing well to the west of the point of destination, to counteract 
the effect of the Current of Northern Guinea, wiiich will be 
again felt iu 2° oST. latitude. 

If this tack is not sufficient to make sure of making the 
coast to the west of the point of destination, make another 
stretch iu the latitude of 2° X., and run on the starboard 
tack until sufficiently to the west to return to the coast 
with certainty. In this manner, a few days Avill take you 
to your destination. Some vessels, which have tried to beat 
along the coast of Xorthern Guinea, have been thirty or 
forty days from Cape Coast Castle to Grand Bassam, and 
have been forced to give up beating thus to the west. 
However, during the rainy season, aud while the harmattan 
l)lows, from October to January, the currents near the coast 
are reversed and run at times to the W., or they are in- 
sensible. Then you can work to the w^est very near the 
north coast of Guinea. 

In leaving the Island of Fernando Po, it is necessary to 
tack along the coast of the Gaboon to make use of the 
variations of the breezes and the tides, and accordingly 
11 A o 



162 ROUTES IN THE GULF OF GUINEA. 

keeping but a short distance from the shore, until suffi- 
ciently to the south Avarcl to reach easily the equatorial (iur- 
rent. In leaving Prince's Island, with the wind from S. W., 
take the starboard tack and keep on this tack as long as 
the vicinity of the coast will permit, then take the port 
tack to run out of the Gulf of Guinea. If it is desired to 
eave it after reaching the Equator on the starboard tack, 
you can keep on this circle or to the south of it on the other 
tack, with the winds from S . to S. S. W. and sometimes S. 
S. E., steering to the west until you attain the meridian of 
Cape Palmas; and if going to the northern hemisphere, 
after thus running along the Equator, commence running to 
the north at from 17° to 28° W. longitude, then steer accord- 
ing to the point of destination. 

Thus in returning to Europe it will be preferable not to 
leave the Equator or steer to the north until in 23° W. longi- 
tude, and then take the same route as indicated for return- 
ing from Brazil to Europe ; but if near the Equator winds 
from W. and N. W. are encountered, which is frequently 
the case during the winter, from May to September, then 
run to the northward in 17° or 18° W. longitude, and pass 
between the Cape Yerd Islands and the coast of Africa; 
to the northward of the Cape Verd Islands the N. E, 
trades will be taken, with which run on the starboard tack. 
If it is desired to return to a port on the coast of Africa, 
Sierra Leone, Gambia, Gorée, or St. Louis, commence to 
ascend to the north in longitude 16° or 18° W. and beat 
between the meridians of 22° and 28°, to avoid enteriug the 
bed of the i)olar current of Northern Africa, until on the 
parallel of the Bissagos; this last route will be particularly 
favorable from May to September, the winter season. 
Lastly, if returning to the United States or to the West 
Indies keep to the north from the meridian of 28° or 33° 
W. longitude. 
Favorable sea- The most favorablc season to leave the Gulf of Guinea is 
Gulf of GiJnea. ^ from May to December ; at that season it is rarely necessary 
to cross the line, the winds from S. S. E. are sometimes well 
established at this period, and they come to the northward 
of the Equator ; but from December to May it is prefera- 
ble to cross the line and keep at least in 0° 30' or 1° S. 
latitude. In following the directions given above a few 
days will take you out of the Gulf of Guinea. To recapi- 
tulate, in entering the Gulf of Guinea pass near Cape 



I 



KOUTEï< FROM El^ROPE TO S. COAST OF AFRICA. 1 0. "> 

raliiias and keep ill tlieCiiiTeiitot'Noitlierii Guinea, between 
the coast and the parallel of 2° or 3° N. latitude. In leav- 
in,i;- tliefîulf of (îiiinea, as a general rule, whatever may be 
the point of (lei)artnre on the coast, you should inaueuver 
so as to reach the Ecpiator by the most direct route ; from 
^Fay to December keep on the E(piator or even a little to 
tlie northward of it. In the other months it is well to keep 
to the south of it, in 0° 30' or 1° S. latitude, keep thus as far 
as the meridian of 10°, 17°, or 23°, &c., of W. lon.Qitude, 
according to the port of destination. 

We will now g^ve some of the passages from Euroi>e to 
places in Northern Africa. 

(roilig. 

The mean from ports of the north of Europe to Madeira, 
tifteen days. 

From the tstrait of Gibraltar to Madeira, four or live days. 

From ports of the north to the Canaries, sixteen days. 

From the Strait of Gibraltar to the Canaries, seven days. 

From ports of the north to the CapeVerd Islands, 
twenty days. 

From ports of the north to St. Louis, eighteen days. 

From ports of the north to G orée, twenty days. 

From ports of the north to Gambia, twenty- four days. 

The navigation along the coast of Africa to the south of 
t^t. Louis depending on the seasons, the duration of the 
voyage is very variable ; thus, in the tine season the mean 
from Goree to Prince's Island is about twenty-eight days, 
and in the winter generally from thirty-six to thirty-eight 
days. 

Beturniiu/. 

From Prince's Island to Goree, thirty -eight to forty days. 

From Gambia to Goree, three to four days. 

From Goree to St. Louis, five to seven days. _ 

From St. Louis to Brest, thirty to forty days. 

This voyage has been made in twenty-four and in twenty- 
two days. 

The routes from Europe to the ports of Africa, situated KoutestvoiuKu- 
to the south of the Equator, are very difterent, according to tiu" Voast'of Ât' 
the latitude of the ports; the routes of which we will speak EqiaYo". 
have been called the (jreat route and the Utile route. 



164 EOUTES FROM EUROPE TO S. COAST OF AFRICA. 

Great route. The great route is that which is followed in going to the 
Cape of Good Hope, and in general for all the ports situated 
to the south of Cape Negro. 
i^ittie route. The little route is that made by ships hound to ports 
situated to the north of Cape ISTegro. However, the great 
route is equally followed by many ships going to the same 
ports. 

The ships which make the great route on leaving Europe 
will follow at first the directions we have given for the 
routes from Europe to Brazil ; they will accordingly cross 
the line between 23° and 28° W. longitude; from thence, 
profiting by the S. E. trades, they will take the port tack 
and make a course toward the Island of Trinidad 5 they 
will pass to the west of this island, and traversing the zone 
of the S. E. trades they will endeavor to reach the westerly 
winds and cross the current of the Southern Atlantic, 
setting to the E. ; they will then direct their course 
toward the Cape of Good Hoi)e, so as to cross the parallel 
of 30° S. in nearly 18° W. longitude. In following the 
route just given, ships have been only fifty days from the 
Channel to Cape Town. 

Navigate in a similar manner to reach the points on 
the west coast of Africa situated to the north of Cape 
Negro; that is, after having crossed the line between 23° 
and 28° W. longitude, take the i)ort tack with the S. E. 
trade-winds, keep on this tack so that in going on the star- 
board tack you will be able to fetch to the south of the port 
of destination, in order to counteract the effect of the polar 
current of Africa setting to the N. W. along the south 
coast of this continent; but if bound to-Benguela, Angola, 
or to Loango, or more generally to a point situated to the 
north of Cape Negro, the route can be modified and in gen- 
eral shorter passages made. 

On leaving Europe steer to take the trade- winds as quick- 
ly as possible ; liass then either to the east or west of 
Madeira, to the west of the Canaries, or through the chan- 
nels formed by these islands; from there steer to pass to the 
west of the Cape Yerd Islands if in the winter, from 
June to September. In the other months you can pass 
between this archipelago and Cape Yerd in approaching 
the cape nearer than the islands, because near the continent 
the winds from N. E. and N. N. W. are fresher and better 
established in this season. Whatever route maybe adopted, 



KOITKS FROM EUKOPE T() ISLAND OF ASCENSION. Km 

at'r«M' passing to the south t)l' the ]»aiiillel of Capo Vord, 
you will navigate along the coast of Africa, keei)ing- one 
hundred and eighty to two hundred and forty miles from it 
until on the parallel of the Bissagos; from there steer for 
Cape Palmas. You cau pass near Cape Palmas in sight of 
it, or at sixty miles distance, and traverse the Gulf of Guinea 
on the starboard tack ; this board generally will lead to Cape 
Lopez, and often to the south of the Island of Annobon; 
then go on the port tack, but do not make the tack too long 
to the westward, to guard against falling into the equatorial 
current; return then to the starboard tack to reach the S. 
W. winds, which are prevalent and alternate from the sea 
and land, principally from the month of January to Septem- 
ber, in the zone comprised between the coast and a line 
Joining the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Palmas ; then beat 
close to the land to profit by these winds. The sea breeze 
prevails in the day from 10 or 11 in the morning, blowing 
from W. S. W: to S. W., and the land breeze during the 
night from S. E. to S. 

Thus the tacks should be combined so as to be near the 
coast when the land breeze commences blowing, and well in 
the offing in the morning to take the sea breeze ; for this 
the tacks should not be more than thirt}^ miles, so as not to 
lose the advantage of this variation of the breezes, and to 
be able to anchor if it falls calm. The bottom is of mud, or 
sand and mud. 

This navigation is precisely similar to that which can be 
made on the coast of Senegambia, in the northern hemi- 
sphere ; but here it is upon a coast of greater extent. 

This navigation is particularly favorable from January to 
September. During the bad season, in the latitude of Cape 
Lopez, sharp, sudden squalls are sometimes experienced, 
but they are generally of short duration. 

In going from Europe to the islands of the South Atlantic, Routes from eu- 
vessels, from bad navigation, have taken a hundred days, ands of the south 

^-^ .,, , "^ Atlantic. 

We will make some remarks which we consider useful. 

From Europe bound to Ascension, try to reach, as quickly Route for as- 
as possible, the N. E. trade-winds ; steer then to pass be- Route to the 
tween the Cape Verd Islands and the Continent, or to*'*^ 
the west of the Cape Verd Islands; from there steer to 
double Cape Palmas, and sight it if possible. On losing 
the N. E. trade-winds, make as much as possible to the south, 



166 



ROUTE FROM EUROPE TO ST. HELENA. 



to traverse tlie zoue of variable winds, without passing to 
the westward of the meridians of 8° or 9° W. 

On approaching the limits of the S. E. trade- winds, in the 
vicinity of Cape Palmas, or even to the north of that cape, 
will be found, nearly always, winds from the S. W., and 
sometimes from W. S. W. ; with these take the starboard 
tack, and the line can generally be crossed in 6° or 5° W. 
longitude, often even more to the east, if the currents of the 
Gulf of Guinea are taken advantage of. 

The route which w^e have already indicated, in going to 
the islands of the Gulf of Biafra, can be used, and it 
appears to us the most advantageous by keeping on the 
parallel of 2° î^. to get sufficiently into the Gulf of Guinea, 
and to cross the line in 0° or 1° E. longitude, running 
on the starboard tack. As soon as the prevailing winds 
from S. to S. E. are taken, run on the port tack, and on this 
board the Island of Ascension will be often made without 
a long and fatiguing voyage. 
Western route. Ill goiug to Asceusiou by the western route j)ursue the 
same course, nearly, as in going to Brazil. After having 
crossed the Equator between the meridians of 23° and 28° 
W., with the S. E. trade-winds, take the port tack, and run 
on this tack until in a position to reach to the east or to 
the south of Ascension, by heading E. or E. N. E. on the 
starboard tack. If, however, the winds are from the E., 
which is not frequent, it will be necessary to work to the 
east, profiting by all the variations of the wind, and mak- 
ing long boards to the south. 

There are also two routes from Europe to St. Helena. 
From the position of this island in the strength of the S. E. 
trade-winds, it cannot be made from the north until a con- 
siderable distance is run to the east or west, to bring it 
under the lee. 

The length of the voyage will generally depend on the 
time taken to cross the zone of variable winds of the Equa- 
tor. The season then will determine which of the two routes 
should be pursued. That to the west is always possible ; 
that to the east is only recommended in the months of 'No- 
vember, December, January, February, and March, the 
period, as we have said, when the zone of the variable winds 
of the Equator is comparatively narrow. 
tiio The route to the east, in the months cited above, will be the 
same as that for going to Ascension, only longer tacks should 



Eonte 
Helena. 



to St 



Konte 
east. 



to 



K'ori'KS y\H)M ASCENSION TO COAST OF AFRICA. 107 

bo made toward the coast of AlVica until headed off by the 
wind. When on tlie other taek St. Ileh'na will j^enerally bo 
reached, and more promptly on this route than that to the 
west, liut when the sun has a great northern declination the 
eastm-n route is very uncertain, and that to the W. is pre- 
ferred. However, it may be said that ii good sailer and a 
ship that holds a good wind may take the eastern route at 
any season. 

After crossing the line between 23° and 28"^ W., take the western route. 
port taek, running toward the coast of Brazil, and keep on 
this tack until the Island of St. Helena can be made to the 
south or east when heading on the starboard tack east or east- 
northeast, according- to the winds. If the winds become con- 
trary, it will be necessary to beat, when, after rnnning on the 
port tack as long as possible, take the starboard tack to the 
eastward ; when near the coast of Brazil take again the port 
tack, and strive to get out of the S. E. trades and into the 
variable winds, Avhere you can make to the east with the west- 
erly winds; then traverse the zone of the trade-winds on 
the starboard tack, rnnning to the northeast or east-north- 
east to make St. Helena to the south or east. 

The currents in the vicinity of St. Helena are weak, and 
even in making the land to windward there would be 
little tronble in reaching the anchorage, except at the epoch 
of the full and change, when the current setting to the N. 
W. increases in force. 

.The mean of the voyages from Europe to the Cajje of 
Good Hope, taken from a great number, is ninety days. 
Horsburgh, in the Anna, made it . in sixty-seven days. 
This is one of the shortest which has been made. A steamer 
from England has taken fifty-nine days to the Cape of Good 
Hope. 

The mean of voyages from Europe to St. Helena is about 
sixty days. The steam packet, from London toAnstralia, 
touching at Teneriffe and the cape, takes one hundred and 
fifty days to reach her destination. 

St. Phillip of Benguela being the most southerly point Routes from a s- 
which can at times be reached in one stretch, we will choose Helena to^point^s 
it in going from Ascension to the coast of Africa, south of of amcZ*^^"''** 
the Equator, as it will readily be seen that any i^oint situated 
to the north of this can be more easily reached. On leaving 
Aseusion, take the starboard tack and do not pass to the 
north of the parallel of 4° S. latitude, in order not to fall 



168 ROUTES FROM N. COAST OF AFRICA TO EUROPE. 

into the great westerly curreut, and do not make too long- 
tacks to the sonth if the wind does not j)ermit you steering 
S. 35° E. ; this, however, depends somewhat on circum- 
stances. It is possible that some tacks will have to be made 
in order not to pass the limits indicated, but it often hap- 
pens that the passage is made on the same tack, as in gen- 
eral the winds on approaching the coast of Africa haul to 
the S. W. and at times to the W. S. W. It will be necessary 
in going from St. Helena to shape a course a little to the 
southward of the i)oint of destination, on account of the 
polar current of the South Atlantic. 

In general, and notwithstanding the o])inions of many 
authors who advise, on leaving these islands, to run first on 
the port tack to the south westward, when going to ports on 
the coast of Africa, situated as high as St. Phillip of Ben- 
guela, take the starboard tack in leaving these islands and 
make for the point of destination, making allowance for the 
current, the mean velocity of which is fifteen miles per day, 
setting to the IST. W. and W. IST. W. But if leaving Ascen- 
sion or St. Helena for a point more to the southward, the 
Cape of Good Hope for examjjle, it will be then necessary 
to take the port tack to run to the southward and toward 
the coast of America, and follow the directions heretofore 
given for the routes from Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, 
when in the southern hemisphere. 
Routes from Af- The routcs from the ports of Africa to Ascension and St. 

rica to the islands . 

of Ascension and Helena havc bccu indicated m the routes from ports north 
of the Equator ; they are the same as from Europe to As- 
. cension, whether the great or little route be taken . In going 
from a point on the coast of Africa situated to the south- 
ward of these islands, the winds and currents are favorable, 
and the only precaution is to make them to the south 
rather than to the north. 
Routes return- In spcakiug of the navigation of the Gulf of Guinea, we 

ing from the ports -t i,i , . -, • ,-, ■ ir-^-n 

ofthenorth coast have indicated the routes m leaving this gult lor Europe. 

rope. ^'^^ ° After having attained the longitude of 23° W., by running 
to the south of the Equator, run to the north on the star- 
board tack and cross the zone of the IsT. E. trades ; on reach- 
ing the zone of the variable winds, steer to pass to the north 
of the Azores or through the channels formed by these 
islands. If the point of departure is situated to the north 
of Cape Palmas, go to the westward with the S. W. winds 
prevailing in these localities, pass the zone of variable winds 



KOrTE FKOM CAPE OF (iOOD IIOPl-: TO EU1ÎOP1]. 1 (»J) 

;ks quickly as possible; and tlii'u on tlu' staiboaid tack 
with the N. E. trade-Aviuds iim to the north. On leaving 
the ports of Seuegamlna, Ganibia, Goree, or St. Louis, in the 
Hue season, with the winds from N. E. and N. N. E., take 
the starboard tack until within the zone of variable winds. 
The routes mentioned are generally made to the west of the 
Azores. On two different occasions in the months of May 
and June I have passed to the east of the Azores, and made 
line passages, one in thirty-two and the other in twenty- 
four days from St. Louis. The return route from points on 
the west coast of Africa situated to the south of the Equa- 
tor, can be readily deduced from the route from the Cape 
of Good Hope to Europe. 

In doubling the Cape of Good Hope from the Indian ^ ^o'^*''^ ûrom tuo 

'^ J- '- Cape ot Good 

Ocean, if in the tine season, the land may be approached nop© *» Emopc. 
without fear, and a northerly course taken as soon as the 
cape is doubled. But if in winter, that is, from June to 
September, before steering north it will be prudent to run to 
the west one hnndred and twenty or one hundred and fifty 
miles from the laud, in order not to be placed on a lee shore 
by the gales from W. or jS". W., which are very frequent at 
this season. 

After doubling the Cape of Good Hope in the tine season, 
that is, from October to April, keep nearly for St. Helena, pass- 
ing a short distance from it either to the east or west. From 
St. Helena keep X. W. by K., about, passing twelve or thir- 
teen miles to the east orw^est of Ascension, and from thence 
cross the line between 23° and 28° W. The route then will 
be that before given for returning to Europe. In doubling 
the cape between the months of May and September, keep 
oft the coast, as we have already said, and get sufftcieutly 
to the westward, to have nothing to fear from the N. W. or 
S. W. gales ; get into the zone of the S. E. trades and cross 
the line between 26° and 28° W. In this season, from a 
great number of voyages, the mean has been from the Cape 
of Good Hope to Europe, about seventy days. 

The mean from the cape to St. Helena, fifteen days ; the 
mean from St. Helena to Ascension, .six days ; there is another 
route recently taken w hich may be followed in going from 
the Cape of Good Hope to Europe, which is, to follow the 
coast of Africa at a short distance from the cape as far as 
the Equator. The winds on this coast prevail during the 
year from S. S. E. to S. S. W. ; this passage can be quickly 



170 ROUTES FEOM NORTH AMERICA TO AFRICA. 

made. Cross the line in 17° or 18° W., and either pass be- 
tween the Cape Yerd Islands and the coast, and from 
there, rnuning on the starboard tack, take the route followed 
from Senegal to Europe. This route may be advantageous 
in certain cases, principally when the line is crossed from 
May to September, the period when, from the vicinity of 
the coast to beyond the Cape Verd Islands the winds are 
from the W., varying to the S. W. and N. W. We have 
not sufficient information on this route to say whether it 
will be found generally advantageous. We limit ourselves 
by pointing out how it may be followed, as it was a short 
time since by Captain Le Sieur de Ville-sur- Arce, on return- 
ing from India. 
Eoutes from lu goiug from the ports of Xorth America to the coast of 
toaeBortheoa^t Africa, north of the Equator, the route is nearly the same 
of Africa. ^g ^j^^^ ^^ 1^^ followed in going to Europe ; only when suf- 

ficiently to the east to reach the port of destination, steer 
for that point, traversing obliquely the region of the ^. E. 
trades. 
Koute from the In goiug to ports of Africa situated to the south of the 
America to °tiie Equator, shapc a course to traverse obliquely the zone of 
South Africa, or the N. E. tradcs, cross the line between 23° and 28° W., 
of *south^*AmCT* and adopt one of the routes already indicated for the west 
^^^' coast of southern Africa or the east coast of South Amer- 

ica, as may be. 
Eoute for re- We will Only indicate the route from the Cape of Good 
coast^f Afr^atoHope to the ports of North America, as from it all the 

î^orth America. ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^-j^ ^g dcduCCd. 

Starting from the cape from October to April, the winds 
will generallj^ be found ijrevailing from the S. E., and the 
direct route will be that heretofore indicated in returning to 
Europe, as far as crossing the line in about 28° W, longi- 
tude ; from thence i)ass to the west of the Penedo de San 
Pedro, and shape a course with the trade-winds, which 
blow generally from E. to E. N. E., a sufficient distance to 
windward of the Windward Islands, this route, as is seen, 
offers no difficulty. 

Erom the month of March to September, on account of 
the frequency of N. W. gales during these winter months, 
keep at once sufficiently oft' the coast to have nothing to 
fear from gales from this quarter ; traverse then the zone 
of the S. E. trades obliquely, and cross the line in 33° W. 
longitude. In this season it is preferable to cross the line 



ROUTE FROM AFRICA TO NORTH AMERICA. 171 

on tliis iiieiidiiiii ratlior than to the east of it,* it is also pre- 
ferable to pass to the east of the Bermudas if bound to 
Nova Seotia, rather than to the Mest of theui, for at tliis 
season winds from the eastward are often found lu this 
hicality.* It is a ruh^ very generally adopted to pass to the 
east of the Bermudas, from the middle of March to the 
month of October, in going" to any of the ports of North 
America situated to the north of New York. From the 
different routes we have given in this chapter, it will be 
easy to deduce all which can be made from any point to an- 
other in the Atlantic Ocean. We have, in this book, brought 
together nearly all the most important observations which 
are of service to navigation, and have given to mariners the 
information most useful for directing them in the navigation 
of the Atlantic Ocean. 

Although all the facts given are the results of numerous 
observations, it should not be inferred that under every 
circumstance they will be found the same. 

There is nothing more subject to variations than the 
winds and currents which we have discussed. 

The seaman should make it a constant study, in order, 
under all circumstances, to take advantage of the general 
facts as presented, and modify the routes as exceptions to the 
general laws here indicated arise. 



Amuses Delano. 



Il 



CHART 
cilllie 

PRINCIPAL ROUTES 

in Uif 
ATLANTIC OCEAN. 





t/uirinu 


j 

j 
















i 
1 



N () U 1 H 




7^. flS^ 




APPENDIX No. 1 



NAUTICAL DIEECTIONS TO AVOID HUliKICANKS. 

From motives which it would be useless to meutiou, we 
had ]iot intended to give in this work the nautical directions 
for endeavorino- to escape the violence of liurricanes. 

Having received many inquiries on the subject, and its 
omission in the General Examination having- been com- 
mented on, thanks to the obliging kindness of M. Kel- 
ler, we have been able to supply the deficiency. Not only 
has this learned hydrographie engineer authorized us to 
take from his memoir of 1847* the nautical directions which 
he published at that tinu*, but he has furnished us with an 
extract from a memoir much more extended on the same 
subject. This last memoir of 'M. Keller (of which we have 
before made mention) is yet unpublished, and we cannot to» 
warmly thank the author for the readiness with which, for 
the general benefit of navigators, he has been pleased to 
communicate to us that portion of it which is to tliem of the 
liTeîitest imi)ortance. 

De KERHALLET. 

EXTRACT FROM THE MEMOIR OF M. KELLER, PUBLISHED IN 

1847. 

We will recapitulate for each hemisphere the nautical 
directions for attempting to avoid the violence of hurri- 
canes, and to facilitate their application by navigators 
threatened to be enveloped l)y these storms. 

IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 

Hurricanes of ll'^e.^f Indies^ Cyclones of India, Typhoons of 
the China Sea. 

"' If the wind hauls by the compass to the right, or in ac- 
cordance with the movement of the hands of a watch, you 
are in the dangerous semicircle of the tempest, and, what- 
ever may be the latitude, you should heave-to on the star- 
board tack ; or, if the force of the wind is not too great, 
stand on close-hauled on the starboard tack. 

* Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Typhoons, and Tempests, &c. 



174 MANEUVERS IN HUEEICANES. 

^' If, on the contraiy, the wind hanls by the compass, to 
the left, or in an opposite direction to the movement of the 
hands of a watch, you are in the manageable semicircle of 
the tempest ; and, if the sea is not too heavy, you should 
run with the wind on the starboard quarter; or, if the 
sea is too heavy, heave-to on the port tack." 

IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 

Hurricanes in the Channel of Mozamhiqne, Island of Bour- 
bon, &c. 

" If the wind haul by the compass to the left, or in a di- 
rection opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
you are in the dangerous semicircle of the tempest, and, 
whatever be the latitude, you should heave-to on the port 
tack ; or, if the storm is not too heavy, stand on close-hauled 
on the i^ort tack. 

" On the contrary, if the wind hauls by the compass to 
the right, or in accordance with the movement of the hands 
of a watch, you are in the manageable semicircle of the 
tempest ; and, if the sea is not too heavy, run with the wind 
on the port quarter. If the sea becomes too heavy, heave-to 
on the starboard tack. 

" We will further add that after having experienced a hur- 
ricane in less than 26° S., or 30° K latitude, you should not 
for some days steer toward the Pole, to avoid again encoun- 
tering the branch of its path the furthest removed from the 
Equator ; for although the velocity of its movement ex- 
ceeds greatly that of a ship, yet the latter may describe the 
chord which joins two points of the curve of the hurricane, 
in the same time employed by the meteor to run over the 
arc of this chord. 

" This precaution would be suj)erfluous in the hurricanes 
of the Gulf of Bengal, and in the typhoons of the China 
seas, for these seas only extend to 30° X. latitude, and 
only contain a limited and sensibly rectilineal portion of the 
general path of hurricanes, which spend themselves on the 
land when directed toward the I^. W. 

" These practical directions are independent of the lati- 
tude; they apply to all the routes of typhoons, and assure 
escax)e in the right direction when this is possible." 



MANEUVERS IN IIUKKK'ANES. 175 

KXTKACT FROM AN UNPUBLISHKD MKMOIK OF M. KKI.LEK, 
RELATING Ï0 MANEUVER IN lUTRRICANES, CYCLONES, TY- 
PHOONS. AND TEMPESTS. 

■^ Tlio iiyratory inovcMiuMit of linrric;iii(>s (lotcnniiics tho 
t;u-k. 

" The inovcninit of tianslatioii dccidcs tli<' couisc a slii]) 
should take. 

"In the iioitheni hemisphere the gyratory iiiovemeut is 
opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch, and in 
the southern hemisphere it is in the same direction as that 
movement. 

'•The gyratory movenuMit being invarial)le in each hemi- 
sphere, the tack upon which a sliip should be placed is 
equally invariable. It is the starboard in the northern 
hemisphere and the port in the southern hemisphere. 

" The movement of translation of the hurricane deter- 
mines for both hemispheres. 

" 1. In the dangerous semicircle, the course close-hauled, 
as long as the barometer falls, and with the wind free when 
it rises. 

" 2. In the manageable semicircle, the course with the 
wind on the (juarter as long as the bartmieter falls, and 
with the wind free when it rises. 

'^ The dangerous semicircle being to the right of the path 
of the center in the northern hemisphere and to the left in 
the southern hemisphere, the course of escape, that is to 
say, the route which should be pursued to increase the dis- 
tance from the center of the hurricane, will be known, if it 
is known on which side of the path of the center of the 
hurricane the ship is placed ; now the side is indicated by 
the variation of the wind by the compass, produced by the 
< h ange of place of the center of the storm, 

" If in looking in the eye of the actual wind, the wind as 
it hauls blows from the right, the ship is to tlie right of the 
liath of the center. If, on the contrary, the wind as it hauls, 
blows from the left of the actual wind, the ship occupies a 
position to the left of the path of the center; after this, the 
route to be pursued to increase the distance from the center, 
depends exclusively on the variation of the wind. 

" This variation should be observed hove-to, in order that 
it be the result of the change of the base of the cyclone, and 
not the change of position of the ship ; besides, it should 
correspond to a fall of the barometer, a distinctive mark of 



176 



MANEUVERS IN HURRICANES. 



the actual penetration of the ship into the body of the hur- 
ricanei 

" The indications of the approach of a hurricane being a 
heavy swell, a steady fall of the barometer and an increas- 
ing violence of the wind, as soon as these are observed 
a ship should reduce sail and be hove-to, on the starboard 
tack in the northern hemisphere, and the port tack in the 
southern hemisphere, without taking into consideration the 
direction of the waves, in order to escape the center of the 
storm and be in a position to execute, at once, such ulterior 
maneuvers as the variation of the wind, observed while 
hove-to, may determine. A resume of these maneuvers is 
given in the following : 

MANEUVER IN HURRICANES IN THE NORTHERN HEMI- 
SPHERE. 

Northern hemisphere, sUirhoard tack. 



3. Wind aft. 



2. Wind on qnar 

ter. 




1. Close-hauled. 



Free. 



'' Being hove-to on the starboard tack, barometer falling: 
"1. If the wind haul by the compass to the right, or in 
the direction of the movement of the hands of a watch, 
the ship is to the right of the path of the center, in the 
dangerous semicircle, and should run close-hauled on the 
starboard tack and keep this course until the barometer 
rises and then run free. 

"2. If the wind hauls by the compass to the left, or con- 
trary to the movement of the hands of a watch, the ship is 



MANEUVERS IN HUKKKiANES. 



177 



to tlie left of the path of tlio center, iii tlic mauageablc 
«eiiiicirele of the cych)iie, and shouhl rnn with the wind on 
the starboard qnarter, and maintain this compass course 
during the ulterior changes of the wind until the barometer 
rises ; from this time sliape a course free. 

•• 3. If the wind as noted when hove-to does not change 
its direction during the progressive fall of the barometer, 
the ship is in the path of the center, and slnmld run with 
the wind aft and keep the same compass course on the star- 
board tack until the barometer rises; from this moment a 
course free should be maintained to the end of the storm." 



MANEl VEIJ IN HFKIÎICANES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMI- 
SPHERE. 

tSovihcrn licmisjpherc^ port tm-k. 

3. Wind aft. 



1. Close-hanled. 



Free.-'j^ 




■i. Wind on quar- 
ter. 



rrei\ 



" Being hove-to on the port tack, the barometer falling : 
•'1. If the wind hauls by the compass to the left, in a di 
rection contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
the ship is to the left of the path of the center, in the dan- 
gerous semicircle ; she should run close-hauled on the port 
tack and preserve this course until the barometer rises, and 
then shape a course with the wind free. 

''■ 2. If the wind hauls by the compass to the right in ac- 
cordance with the movement of the hands of a watch, the ship 
is to the right of the path of the center, in the manageable 
semicircle of the storm, and should ruu with the wind on 
the port quarter and maintain this compass course during 
12 A o 



178 MANEUVERS IN HUERICANBS. 

the ulterior changes of the wind until the barometer rises j 
when shape a conrse free. 

"3. If the "wind, observed when ho veto, does not change 
its direction during th^ j^rogressive fall of the barometer, 
the ship is in the path of the center and should run before 
the wind, and keep the same comi^ass course on the port 
tack, until the barometer rises, a course with the wind free 
should be constantly maintained until the end of the storm. 

" These directions relative to maneuvers in hurricanes in 
the two hemispheres differ from those of i3age 19 of our 
memoir on hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons, and tempests, 
as the maneuvers advised by Reid, in his recent work, The 
Progress of the Beveloppient of the Law of Storms, page 27, 
differ from those recommended in the two editions of his 
first work, The Laic of Storms, which has been extolled hj 
Fiddington, Thorn, &c. 

'• The latter work advised heaving-to on the port tack in 
the manageable semicircle of hurricanes in the northern 
hemisphere, and on the starboard tack in the southern hemi- 
sphere, in order to avoid the danger of being taken aback 
in the shifts of wind. But this maneuver having the grave 
disadvantage of pushing the shiji toward the center and 
precipitating her into a danger more certain and more for- 
midable, Reid, struck by this disadvantage, advises at pres- 
ent to renounce this mode, and in all cases to take the star- 
board tack in the northern hemisphere and the port tack in 
the southern hemisphere. 

''We are entirely of this opinion, which simplifies the 
maneuvers in reducing them to a question of direction and 
Ijlacing the tack out of the case, the more so as the course 
with the wind on the quarter and the wind aft being sub- 
stituted in the recent directions for hove-to on the opposite 
tacks in the manageable semicircle of hurricanes, ships 
need not fear being taken aback, for the shifts of wind are 
never so great at the commencement of a hnrricane as to 
l^ass from aft forward. 

'' On the other hand the variation of the wind arising 
from the ship penetrating the base of the hurricane is greater 
in a given time as the penetration is greater, or as the ve- 
locity of the translation of the hurricane is greater, ^ow, 
this velocity keeping back the wind from the manageable 
semicircle, the wind there is more feeble according to the 



MANKIVKIJS I\ in KK'ICANKS. 1 7M 

rapidity with wliicli llie luiiiicaiu' :i(l\ aiiccs in its patli. 
thoiieo, tlic ji'reatest variation in tlic direction of tlic wind 
wliicli conld 1)0 feared would l>o only IVoni a wind eonii>ar- 
atively lii^ht and by no means formidable, and if, on the 
contrary, the wind is strong" it varies but little, because the 
velocity of the translation is feeble, and then there is no 
dan<ier of bein.u taken aback; although in this case the vio- 
lence of the wind in the manageable semicircle differs but 
little from that in the dangerous semicircle. 

"' We will add that the maneuver, wind aft. involves a 
great reduction of sail, to manage the ship almost under 
bare idoles if the wind is very violent, in order to reduce the 
speed of the ship and the impetus which she communicates 
to the waves, which would be likely to comb over aft if the 
speed were too great. It is always better to run the risk 
of shii)ping' a few seas than to remain stationary, on all 
courses, except that, with the wind aft, it is necessary to 
make sail, otherwise the ship would be at the mercy of the 
waves." 

That navigators mny judge of their maneuver by the 
state of the sea, we will show the direction of the predomi- 
nant wave on the different courses prescribed. 

DlKEf'TTON OF THE I'KEDOMINANT AVAVP: ON THE DIFFER- 
ENT COURSES. 

In the northern hemisphere, starboard tack. 
The ship being hove-to on the starboard tack : 

On the course pre- ( the piodomi- f on the starboai'd quar- 
scribed free, • uautwavcis } ^^y^ 

In the dangerous semicircle : 

( )n the constant course, ) i ,, , , ,, 

, , 4 t'.ie wave is ; on the starbord r>eam. 

close-hauled, ) ( 

In the manageable semicircle : 

1st. Wind aft ) i ^" ^'^^ ^'''''^ ^l"'^^'^^^"- 

2(1. Wind on quarter. . ( ) ''^*^- 

:'.d. Wind free / *'"' """ '' ' ^" *^^® starboard (piar- 

4th. Close-hauled \ / *^^'- 

' von the starboard beam. 

In the southern hemisphere, port tack. 
.The ship behig hove-to, port tack : 

On the course pre- ) the pr.donn- ♦ ., . 

., 1 ^ } : . } on the port (luarter. 

scribed free, I uantwaveis J ' ^ 



180 MANEUVERS IN HURKICANES. 

In the dangerous semicircle. 

On the constant course, ) ( +i <- 1 

, , ' > the wave is { ou the port beam, 

close-hauled, 3 ( 

In the manageable semicircle : 

1st. Wind aft ) C'"''^^'' starboard (juar- 

2d. Wind on quarter . . ( ; 

3d. Wind free Y ''"" """ '^ < ^'*^' 

4th. Close-hauled \ T^ ^f 1^^^^^, f"^^"^' 

J \ on the port beam. 

"According to the foregoing, the most unfavorable direc- 
tion of the wave is that of close-hauled in the dangerous 
semicircle, but on this route, the ship being supported by 
the wind, the rolling is not likely to affect the spars ; the 
pitching will be moderate, and the helmsman must watch 
the waves and strive to avoid the shock of the heavy seas. 
This course should not be abandoned, for it is the only one 
by which to avoid future peril, and the skill of the helmsman 
may meet the present danger. The danger here mentioned 
should never make the mariner neglect the rules laid down. 
He should follow them at all hazards, whatever may be the 
state of the sea, for certainly his situation will become more 
dangerous the longer he delays to execute the maneuver 
which alone can secure his safety, by removing from the 
center of the hurricane." 

The following is a résumé, for the two hemispheres, of 
the practical directions already given. 

GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MANEUVER IN HUR- 
RICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TEMPESTS. 

As soon as a ^progressive fall of the barometer and in- 
creasing violence of the wind indicate the approach of a 
hurricane, all the necessary i^recautions should be taken ; 
heave-to, so as to remain, as nearly as possible, stationarj^, 
or at least making very little progress, in order to observe 
the wind during the first depression of the barometer and 
to decide from it the course for escape, as follows : 
In the northern hemisphere, starboard tack : 
The starboard tack should be taken equally in heaviug- 
to at first as for the course of escape. 

If, when hove-to, the barometer falling, 
the wind has not changed its direc- 
tion, run with the wind aft, and keep 
this original compass course. 



MANEUVKHS IN III KK'UANEt^. 181 

If the wind hauls to the left, ! If the wind liaiils to the right, 
rim with Aviiul on quarter, j rim close haul<Ml and keej» 
and keep this original com-' tliis cours<', 
pass course, 

until the luiroiuctcr rises. 

From this ' moment, and as long- as tlic 
wind is violent, follow the course fiec 
on the starboard tack. 

In the southern hemispher(\ port tack : 

The port tack should be taken e<|ually in heaving-to at 
tirst, as for the course of escape. 

if, when hove-to, the barometer falling, 
the wind has not changed its direction, 
run with the wind aft, and keep this 
original compass course. 



If the wind hauls to the left, 
run close-hauled, and keep 
this compass course, 



If the wind hauls to the right, 
run with wind on the quar- 
ter, and keep this original 
compass course, 



until the barometer rises. 

From this moment and as long as the wind continues vio- 
lent, follow the course free on the port tack. 

" These jiractical rules are general and independent of 
all conjecture upon the direction, the velocity, or the radius 
of the storm ; they reduce the maneuver to a question of 
courses, the tack being constant and invariable in each 
hemisphere; they should be executed strictly, without any 
thought of the direction of the wave, for being influenced 
by the state of the sea might cause a false maneuver ; 
they are treated of at a greater length in the work which 
will be hereafter published, to support them, and justify the 
confidence of seamen. 

" In this work we will exhibit the great variety of direc- 
tion in the paths of hurricanes observed in the same lati- 
tudes, and often in the same localities, to demonstrate the 
necessity of directions, independent of any particular direc-, 
tion of the hurricane, and to prove to navigators how great 
the danger would be were they to regulate their maneuvers by 
rules founded on a single conjectured direction, indicated in 



182 MANEUVERS IN HURRICANES. 

advance. On the other side to confirm our own instructions 
we will give the list of numerous vessels which, from hav- 
ing executed maneuvers different from those we have laid 
down for each case, have become more involved in the 
storm and been seriously damaged. 

"KELLER, 
'■'■Ancien Élève de VÉcole Polytechnique, 

^^ Ingénieur Eydrograplie de la Marine^ 



APPENDIX N 



SIEMOIK ON THE CUEKENTS OF TirE ATLANTIC OCEAN, li\ 
31. IRMINGER, CAPTAIN IN THE DANISH NAVY, AND AIDE- 
DE-CAMr-GENERAL OF HIS MAJESTY THE KINO OF DEN- 
MARK. 

NotAvitlistaudinji' the i)rogTess of navigation, which at 
this day extends to every point of the ocean, snfificieut at 
tention has by no means been accorded to the currents of 
the sea, which can, with propriety, be named the arteries of 
the terrestrial globe, as, in passing through the different 
zones, they bestow heat on the frigid and refresh the tropi- 
cal regions. Although a system for the surface currents of 
the sea is in some measure established, they have been but 
imperfectly examined ; as to the currents of the depths of 
the ocean nothing is known. 

Nevertheless, as it is known that tlie currents below the 
surface of the sea are very different in their direction from 
those of the surface currents, it having been observed that 
icebergs, with deep bases, move with considerable rapidity 
against the Avind and surface current. 

It may be believed that the submarine as well as the sur- 
face currents pass with regularity through the different 
zones, and that they are uinted by a reciprocal dependence. 
It is, then, desirable that the greatest possible number of 
observations be sought on the currents existing in the depths 
of the ocean. When a certain number has been collected, 
giving the direction of these currents, with their tempera- 
ture, &c., a system can certainly be established. It should 
be admitted that they are probably mufh more constant than 
the currents of the surface, upon which the intluence of the 
winds, the tides, the melting of the ice in high latitudes, 
the waters which debouch from the great rivers, the storms 
and tempests, which heap up the water on isolated points, 
and, finally, the different pressures of the air, are so many 
causes of perturbation. 

When I set out in 1847, with the brig of war L'AirjIe, for 
the coast of Guinea and the W^est Indies, by the kind as- 
sistance of Professors Orsted and Forchhammer, I obtained 



184 CUKRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

tlie iustriiment of M. Aimé for determining siibmaiine 
currents. It was made by the optician Nissen, at Copen- 
hagen. Tlie observations that were made during the voyage 
with this instrument proved that it was perfectly adapted 
to practice, as its mechanism is so simx)le tliat it can be re- 
paired 'by any good maker of instruments. The weight sus- 
pended to the instrument, in our experiments, was always 
twenty pounds. 

To obtain a good result it is necessary that the vessel is 
stationarj" while the instrument is lowered into the sea. If 
the dej)th is too great to anchor the sea should be calm, and 
there should not be any surface current; for if, during 
the trial, the ship drifts, the line attached to the instrument 
not being vertical^ the observation would lose its exactness. 

Although the vessel was not furnished with lines of suf- 
ficient length for great depths, I will give, nevertheless, 
some of my observations made during rare moments of 
calm, in localities where I was desirous of examining the 
direction of the submarine current. 

The 14th of September, 1847, calm ; in sight of Madeira, 
latitude 31o 58' îiT., longitude 17° 12' W. The Indicator of 
tlie direction of tlie current.* the name which I have given 
to this instrument, was lowered to a depth of 632 meters, 
(2,054 feet.) 

Attached near the instrument was a self-registering ther- 
mometer, encased in a cylinder of solid metal, on which was 
screwed a lid, also of metal, of the same thickness, to guard 
the thermometer against the force of the submarine pressure. 
The following temperatures (deduced from those found by 
the author with the thermometer of Eeamur) are given for 
Fahrenheit : 

Temperature of the air in the shade on deck, 7G°.l ; at 
the surface of the water, 730.45 at the depth of 2,054 feet, 
510.8. 

The instrument indicated that- the direction of the cur- 
rent at the above depth was W. S. W.^ (true.) After careful 
observations no surface current could be perceived for from 
7h. of the morning until 5Jh. in the afternoon ; the vessel 
had been carried hardly two miles to the E., and the line 
attached to the instrument was perpendicular. 

*Tlie instrumeut of M. Aimé, constructed to give the direction of sub- 
marine currents. 



tU'KKKNThi OF TIIi: ATLANIK' OCKAN. 18"» 

Tilt' surface ciurciit in this locality is «^ciicially dircctotl 
toward the «-oast <>(' Africa. The indicator of tlic sulmia- 
riiu; current showed that the mass of the lower water was di- 
rected toward \V. 8. W., (true.) To i)ersons iiu)re versed 
than mj self in such matters 1 would submit the followinji 
hypothesis : It is known that the volume of water which 
debouches from Davis's Strait is such that it frequently 
brings into the Atlantic enormous masses of ice, A'erital>le 
mountains, descending- below the latitude of îs^ewfoundland, 
and as far as the Gulf Stream, whose waters, heated the 
whole length of the coast of Mexico, are mnch lighter than 
its OMn, could it not be supposed that becoming a submarine 
current from this cause, the current of the north continues 
to the S. by passing under the breadth of the Gulf Stream, 
and that in approaching the south of Europe and the north 
of Africa the direction of the coasts of these continents 
obliges it to bend toward the west in the locality where this 
observation was made. 

More numerous observations on submarine currents wdl 
demonstrate whether these su})])ositions are true or not. 

The 17th of March, 1849, calm ; latitude 25° 1' X., longitude 
(35° 41 W. The indicator was lowered with the thermometer 
to a depth of OL'O meters, (2,900 feet.) It reijuired fifteen min- 
utes to descend, and sixteen and a half to come up. At 
this depth the instrument indicated that the current run to 
the N. W. The temperature in the shade on the deck, 79° ; 
at the surface of the water, 7r»°4'; at 2,990 feet depth, 
45° 8'. 

In order to assure myself of the reliability of the instru- 
ments I sent them down immediately again to the same 
depth; the direction of the current and the temperature 
were found identically the same. 

hi making these observations I always allowed the in- 
strument to arrive at the required depth, and remain a cer- 
tain time before letting fall the lead weight, to be sure that 
the movement of the needle, which without doubt must be 
consideral;)le during the descent, had entirely ceased. 

Similar observations at different i)oints and at different 
depths would lead us to a more exact knowledge of subma 
rine currents, and although those only at the surface of the 
sea at the present have a practical interest for the seaman, 
it nevertheless appears to me probable that repeated obser- 
A'ations on submarine currents, as to their direction and 



186 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

temperature, may in time become of practical utility, cousid- 
eriug that perliaps they may teach the route aucl the causes 
of the annual migration of the whale and numerous species 
offish,* which, without doubt, is intimately connected with 
the currents, for these take to them the nourishment which 
the whale seeks, as much at the depths of the ocean as on 
its surface. 

If the interest which such observations merit could induce 
seamen to make them, a great point would be gained. In 
a calm they would serve as a distraction on board of vessels 
of war, Avhere the number of men admit of the apparatus 
being hoisted without fatigue to any. 

In the foregoing I have said that the currents of the sur- 
face are exposed by exterior influences to deviation from 
their usual track ; and as I have frequently noticed that my 
observations differ much irom those indicated in the descrip- 
tions of currents, I add a table of those which I have found 
during a voyage made in 1847 to Guinea and the West 
Indies, in order to prove to what irregularities the fixed 
currents may be subject. 

^ My honorable friend, Professor Escliriclit, requested me when I left 
Copenhagen in the brig of Avar Eagle to observe the direction taken by 
the "whales Avhich we might see during the voyage. I in consequence 
noted carefully in my journal each time they were met with and the di- 
rection followed by them. Although I have met these cetacea frequently 
during similar voyages, I was surprised to see often, from the 21st to the 
27th of September, between the latitude of 15° N. and 11° N., aud longi- 
tude 23° and 26° "VV., troops of whales, sometimes composed of many 
hundreds, traveliug always with great rapidity toward the N. aud N. 
E., and most frequently N. N. E. In these localities the temperature of 
the water at the surface was 82°.6 to 84°.2 Fahrenheit, a temperature 
higher by 4°.5 than the ordinary under this parallel. 



CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 



187 



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CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 



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(TKUKNTS Ol" Till'; ATLANTIC OCEAN. 181» 

This shows that troiii the ."it h NdVOiiiVxT, iiichisivo, to the 
time of siyhtiii.!;' the Jshiiid of (iuadeloiipt'. we luul exi)e- 
rieneed ii eiiiTent of one hundred and Ibrty-lbiu- miles, set- 
ting X. 30^ E., a mean of (5.55 miles in twenty-foni' hours. 

I would renuvrk that tlie vessel was i>ro\ ided with excel- 
lent ehrononu'tei's. We had daily observations for latitude! 
and longitude, in which we placed all confidence. The 
courses were steered with the greatest care, and the direc- 
tion of the current was calculated from the difference of 
position between the observations and the dead reckoning. 

It is seen by the table that the direction of the current of 
Northern Guinea, from the 27th to the 31st of October, at 
which time we should have expected to have been without 
its influence,* Avas N. 60° E., with a rate of 9.7 miles per 
day. The instructions indicate a current to the E. of from 
fifteen to thirty miles per day.t 

In beating back along the coast of Guinea, from Quitta to 
Accra, a distance of about eighty-five miles, with a fresh 
wind from W. S. W., nearly a head- wind, we were from the 
lith until the loth, at lOh. in the evening, and were con- 
vinced that not only we had no current against us, but, con- 
trary to general observations, we had been carried, during 
twenty-four hours, six miles to the w^st. This current to- 
ward the west is, without doubt, unusual ', | but it is not 
improbable, for the vessel was beating in close proximity to 
the coast, and there, as everywhere near the limits of con- 
siderable currents, a counter-current may exist; yet, at 
anchor on different parts of the coast, I have never discov- 
ered any. 

The table' shows that on the 5th November the current 
set nearly W. The ship was then in a position where, by 
running west, it could be expected to profit by the equato- 
rial current without interruption ; and, as this current comes 
from the S., and from colder regions, I had no doubt of 



* Purdy, Atlantic Ocean. 

tin Reunel's excellent work on the currents of tlie Atlantic Ocean, 
it is stated that the current of Northern Guinea has a breadth of one hun- 
dred and eighty miles, which accords perfectly with the table, seeing that 
the 31st of October, at noon, the ship was nearly one hundred and eighty 
miles to the south of tlie coast of Guinea. 

tWe have in the Manuel de la Navigation de la Côte d^ Afrique indicated 
these changes of the general current, which take place in the rainy sea- 
son, and while the harmattan blows. — (DeK.) 



190 CURRENTS OP THE ATLA_NTIO OCEAN. 

lindiug it so, as tlie temperature of the water, had fallen to 
76° ; but, contrary to tlie directions, I found, on the follow- 
ing days, tliat tlie current set toward the E. instead of 
the W. 

Eenuel cites, among the perturbations which take place 
in the great equatorial current, that, in 1816, Sir James Yeo, 
in a voyage from Guinea to the West Indies, found no cur- 
rent between the Equator and 1° 30' S. latitude, from the 
meridian of 0° to that of 15° W. longitude, although four 
other vessels, in the same locality and during the same 
month, had experienced a current which set toward the 
W. at the rate of twenty-two and even sixty-tliree miles 
per day. 

The table indicates that I found on the 6th, 7th, and 8th 
of November, in the localities in question, a current which 
differs still more from those ordinarily encountered, than the 
currents found by Sir James Yeo, inasmuch as it set, in four 
days, î«r. 480 E. forty-one miles, a mean of 13.7 miles per day 
to the IsT. E., while, in these localities, it sets nearly always, 
with considerable velocity, to the W, 

I cannot explain this remarkable direction of the current 
in this region, except by admitting that the current of the 
Equator (and perhaps this may be common in this season, 
though the directions do not mention it) had been carried 
more than ordinary toward the south, and that we had nav- 
igated in the eddy formed at its northern limit; for the tem- 
perature of the sea proved sufficiently that w^e were in a 
mass of cold water, Avhich should come from the south and 
regions less heated by^the sun. 

I traversed, from preference, during the remainder of my 
voyage across the Atlantic, the route where the instructions 
and the charts indicated favorable winds and currents. 
Nevertheless, contrary to my expectation, I reaped no ad- 
vantage from current, for, from the 5th of November, when 
I believed that I Avas within the influence of the equatorial 
current, to the 26th of November, when we made Guade- 
loupe, (in which time tlie vessel had run about 3,500 miles,) 
the current had carried us one hundred and forty-four miles 
N. 30° E., and though, in comparison with the distance run, 
this cannot be considered considerable, it is not the less ex- 
traordinary, for, generally, the current on this route is favor- 
able, setting to the W. 



<^'ITRRENT8 OF THE ATLANTIC OCKAN. lîM 

To liiul. it' it wore i)ossible,* a reason for these oiirrcuts 
so different from those usnally met Avith, it wcrnUl be neces- 
sary to compare tlie lo^us of ships wliich have traversed the 
Athnitic at this period, but as these are not Avithiu my 
reach I can only cite facts. Little is known as yet of the- 
currents of the arctic division of the Atlantic Ocean. 

The cause of this want of lvnowled;!j;e is probably owinj^' 
to the zone bein.y- seldom visited, and to the frecpient storms, 
blowing from one direction and the other, altering the di- 
rection of these «-urrents; moreover, the togs and cloudy 
weather are insurmoimtable obstacles to obtaining the ob- 
servations for establishing currents, it results that it is 
more difficult in these regions than under a lower latitude 
to arrive at a result which merits conlidence. It is, how- 
ever, known from indisputable facts that a current coming 
fromS. W., passing between Iceland and the Shetlands, has^ 
its course across the Atlantic as far as the Arctic Sea.+ 

In order to examine this current I have examined the 
Journals of many of our vessels of war which have gone 
latterly to Iceland, particularly those oî the J)roning-Maria, 
in 1831 ; the Xaiade, in ISoI ; the Mercury^ in 1845 ; the 
Saint Croix, in 1810; the St. Thomas, in 1817; the Diana, 
iu 1850 ; the Saga, in 1851, «Jcc. From my own observa- 
rious on the oue side, and on the other by the aid of mauy 
kind friends, I have been able to obtain numerous observa- 
tions on t^e temperature of this part of the Atlantic Ocean. 
That the result of these observations could be more readily 
seen I entered some of them on a chart, joined to this me- 
moir ; in order to prevent confusion I have not given a 
arger number. The observations nîàde in the voyages to 
tireeuland were furnished me by Captain Holboll and by 
Lieutenant LTlrich, of the royal navy. 

The vessels of war above cited have at different periods, 

* We liave iudicated pertm-batious of the sauie kind iu tlie c(iuatorial 
> iirreiit, as also one riinning to the E., wliieh appears to lie permanent 
iu the space comprised Itetweeu the N. W. hrauch of the equatorial 
<urreut aud the current of Guiana ; it is this current to the E. iu which 
Captain Irmiuger has navigated, aud tlie observations of the preceding 
table are of the gi-eatest ititerest, iu that they coutirm those already 
iiiade by M. Lartigue aud by Captain Moutravel on the current to the 
K., which we have designated the counter eqitaiorkd current. — De K. 

t See N. E. branch of the C4nlf Stream. 



192 CUREENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

from the luontli of April to September, navigated eighty- 
seven days between the meridian of the Island of Fairhill 
and that of 18^ 10' W., and between the parallels of 58^ 
and 60° N. latitude. In these localities I have often found 
that the current was very irregular ; but the mean of the 
observations during this period gives a current of 2.4 miles 
per day, setting to N. 52° E. 

From the meridian of 17° 40' W. longitude, (which is 
about that of the south point of Iceland,) between the i)ar- 
allel of 62° N. latitude and the south coast of Iceland, as 
far as Cape Eeikianes, the mean of the currents for thirty- 
two days was 1.9 miles per day, setting to the northward 
and westward. 

To examine if the currents in this space between Fair- 
hill and Iceland had an equal velocity, I have divided it 
into four parts ; the result obtained is as follows : 

In the first division, comprised between the parallels of 
59° 30' and 61° 30' N. latitude and the meridians of 2° 
and 6° W. longitude, the mean of the currents observed 
during seventeen days gives a rate of 7.7 miles per day, 
setting to the N. 72° E. 

In the second division, comprised between the parallels 
of 60° and 62° K, and between the meridians of 8° and 10° 
W., the mean of the observed currents during eleven days 
gives a rate of 2.5 miles per day, setting IsT. 60° E. 

In the third division, comprised between the parallels of 
60° 30' and 62° 30' K latitude, and the meridians of 10° and 
14° W. longitude, the mean of the observed currents dur- 
ing twenty-five days gives a rate of j\ of a mile per day, 
setting N. 32° E. * 

In the fourth division, comprised between the parallels of 
61° and 63° N. latitude and the meridians of 14° and 18° 
W. longitude, the mean of the observed currents gives a 
rate of 3.1 miles per day, setting to JST. 47° E. 

Between Fairhill and Greenland the Aveather did not per- 
mit the collection of many observations, more especially for 
the determination of longitude; hence the direction and 
strength of the currents could not be calculated with the 
desired accuracy ; however, it was found, in the month of 
April, between the meridians of 32° and 39° W. longitude, 
and the parallels of 57° and 59° of ^5". latitude, from the 
difference between the latitude observed and that estimated, 
that the mean difference to the N. during thirteen days was 



CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 103 

3.2 iiiiU's \)vv (l;iy. In the iiiontli of S('i>tiMiil)('r, hctwocn tlie 
paralk'ls of (}(P and 58^ N". latitude and tlie meridians of 
4.'P and IP W. longitude, there was a difference to the north- 
ward of five miles. 

From the observations we have collected, it can be stated, 
1st. That the temi)erature of the sea between the meridian 
of Fairhill and that of about 3(P W. longitude, does not 
vary much on a line drawn to Cape Farewell. But to the 
west of the meridian of 30° the water becomes gradually 
colder as the coast of Greenland is approached. 2d. That 
the sea in the spring is not colder near the southern part of 
Iceland than it is at Fairhill, although the position of Ice- 
laud is many degrees further north ; while near the Shet- 
lands the temperature is a little higher in summer, or at the 
commencement of autumn, than it is near to Iceland. 3d. 
That the temperature of the sea is in general 2° to 3° colder 
in the spring than at the commencement of autumn. 

In man}' voyages made in the beginning of May, it was 
found that the water in the northern jnirt of the JSTorth Sea 
was colder by 2° and more than the sea which extends to 
the west of the Shetlands, while later in summer their tem- 
perature was more uniform. 

From the 19th of June to the 13th of July, 1811, 1 found 
that the temperature about the Faroe Islands, and in the 
channels formed by these islands, was never below 49°, or 
above 51° Fahrenheit. 

The daily observatious made in 181G and 1817, which 
were communicated to me by ]M. Moller, show that the tem- 
])erature uear Thorshavn was, at a mean : 



For October, 181G. . . . I80.I 

For November, 181G . 17o.3 

For December, 1816.. 42o.9 

For January, 1817 . . . 12o.9 

For February, 1817 . . ll^.O 



For March, 1817 13o.5 

For April, 1817 43o.5 

For May, 1817 400.2 

For June, 1817 I80.G 



In the month of December the winds from N. and X. E. 
prevail at the Faroe Islands, and bring an intense cold ; this 
is probably the cause of the increased coldness of the water 
during this month. The atmosphere has, without doubt, 
had more influence on the water of the Bay of Thorshavn, 
which is well closed, and the depth less than the sea. But 
as the Faiye Islands are situated nearly half way between 
the Shetlands and Iceland, the observatious made near the 
13 A o 



194 CUEKENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

port of Thorsliavn will give an approximate idea of the 
temperature of the sea in these localities during the above 
mentioned months, though the temperature of the water at 
great depths should be considered as more constant than 
those observed near the shore of Thorshavu. 

It api^ears, moreover, that the current which is directed 
to the N. E. between Iceland and the Shetlands is divided 
into two belts, indicated by a diiference of terai)erature of 
one or two degrees ; their limits, however, are not always 
the same. 

In mentioning these belts of water of different tempera- 
tures, I should observe that between the i^arallels of 40° 
and 45° N. latitude, and between the meridians of 40° and 
50° W. longitude,' there is always a great difference in the 
temperature of the sea. In the same places where at times 
the temperature is 8°.8 to 9°.4 below the ordinary tempera- 
ture of the ocean,* at other times it is found that the warm 
current of the Gulf Stream preserves a temx)erature of many 
degrees above the ordinary temperature of the ocean. These 
variations are produced, without doubt, by the current of 
Davis's Strait, t If this current is very rapid, the northern 
limit of the Gulf Stream retrogrades toward the south, while 
in the opposite case it advances more to. the north. In the 
same localities are frequently met mountains of ice, which 
nearly every year come from Davis's Strait, | and contribute 
much to lower the temperature of the sea. 

Admitting that the great body of water which runs to 
the ]Sr. E., between Iceland and the Shetlands, comes from 
the localities indicated above, § where the temperature of 
the sea is very variable, it can be readily believed that they 
exert as much influence on the temperature of the sea be- 
tween Iceland and the Shetlands as the removal of the 
limits of the Gulf Stream. It is impossible, in the space 
comprised between Iceland and the Shetlands, to give the 
boundary which separates the warmer from the colder belt 



* Eennel, p. 244, 248. 

t Eeunel, p. 207. 

t A vessel in January, 1818, was inclosed in tlie ice during twenty- 
nine days, and was drifted a distance of three hundred miles E. S. E. — 
Kennel, j). 245. 

§ See observations on the velocity of the Gulf Stream, in the Neiv 
Archives of Navigation, p. 191, by Captain Irminger. 



CURRENTS OF Til JO ATLANTIC OCEAN. IDo 

of water, as these belts are carried more toward the east or 
west, according- as the currents and masses of ice coming- 
from Davis's Strait influence more or less the limits of the 
Gulf Stream and the temperature of its waters. 

Some experienced mariners, who, for a number of years 
have been occupied between Spitzbergen and Jan Mayens 
Island, in the whale and seal fishery, have informed me* 
that nearly in the longitude of the Shetlands, between those 
islands and the parallels of (>o^ and 01°, they have often 
seen in the sea discolored spots, by means of which, on their 
return, they were able to determine their longitude. ]^early 
in the same i)arallels of latitude, when nearer the meridian 
of the Shetlands than to that of Xorway, the bird called the 
Jan-Vau-Gent, (tlie Gannet,) known by all those who have 
navigated the north of the Atlantic, is frequently met with, 
wdiile it is rarely seen when nearer to the meridian of Nor- 
way than to that of the Shetlands. 

When it is considered that the vessels occupied in the 
whale fishery cruise often for months among the ice, under 
a parallel where a degree of longitude is not more than four 
or five miles, that the observations for position on board 
these vessels are generally confined' to the latitude, it can be 
understood that they may have frequently considerable 
errors in their longitude, unless, from time to time, they 
make the land. It is then natural that the captains of 
these vessels should observe with particular attention the 
least change in the color of the water, the appearance of 
birds, the direction of their flight, &c., indications super- 
fluous to those who, by exact observations, are confident of 
their position. Thus the ex^jerience acquired by these mar- 
iners, from many years of navigation in these localities, has • 
convinced them that the indices of which we have spoken 
inform them, on their return from the Icy Sea, whether they 
are to the east or west of the route followed. 

Similar observations, made by i^ractical men, should not 
be despised. It is not uidikely that the spots in thf^ sea re- 
sult from the intermingling of the water of the current com- 
ing from S. W. with that coming from the Icy Sea, a meet- 
ing which probably takes place in the localities indicated. 

It is also possible that these same currents bring the food 
which certain sea birds prefer, for it is extremely rare that 

* Among- others, the skillful Captaiu Kitelseu, who commanfled on the 
roast of Greenland a vessel of Gliickstadt. 



196 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

tlie Gannet is found to the eastward of the meridian indi- 
cated above. 

In the preceding I have mentioned the current which, 
near to the south coast of Iceland and to the west of the 
meridian of 18° W., is directed toward Cape Eeikianes, 
bearing northwest westerly from Iceland, between 64° 
15' and 65° 50' N. latitude, and between 23° 51' and 
25° 48' W. longitude, the mean of observations made 
for five days in May and June, 1846, gives a current of 4.8 
miles per day setting to the N. 15° W. During a consider- 
able sojourn on the west coast of Iceland, I have often had 
evidence that the current directed toward the N. pre- 
dominates considerably, which is a fact generally known to 
the fishermen. 

It is found that the temj)erature of the water in the road 
of Eeikiavik, from the 30th of May to the 16th of June, has 
been, at the mean, 47°.5; from the 1st to the 14th July, 
53°.4, and from the 11th to the 31st, 51°.6 ; while the tem- 
perature of the sea near the west coast of Greenland, which 
is opposite to Iceland, generally varies but from 34° to 36° 
Fahrenheit.* 

In the Bay of Patrix, which is above 65° 30' N. latitude, 
distant hardly a degree from the polar circle, the temjoera- 
ture of the sea from 18th to 23d of June was 47°.l. 

From the high temperatures we have mentioned, and the 
direction of the current, it can be inferred that the one 
which comes from the S. continues its course by rounding 
Iceland to the west. To determine how far it goes toward 
the IST., I give the following : 

June 23, 1846, at 6 p. m., the brig of war St. Croix, Cap- 
tain Svenson, being in latitude 65° 54' K, longitude 25° 05' 
W., the temperature was 49°.l. f 

The 24th of June, at 6 a. m., latitude, (56° 22'; longitude, 
26° 13'; temperature, 35°.6; loose ice to northeast. 

At 9 a. m., latitude, m° 30' ; longitude, 26° 14' ; temper- 
ature, 32°.2. 

At meridian, latitude, 66° 17'; longitude, 25° 39'; tem- 
perature, 37°.6. 

At 4 p. m., latitude, 65° 53'; longitude, 25° 11'; temper- 
ature, 46°.4. 

* Voyage of Exjyloration on the East Coast of Greenland, by Captain 
Garha, p. 152. 
t This high temperature has been found but ouce. 



rriîREN rs of the Atlantic ocean. 191 

At 8 p. m., latitiulo, OjO 38'; loiigitudo, 2i^ 41' ; temper- 
ature, 470.5. 

Diirin^i' the time tlie brij;- was in the cohl current, tliere 
\vas no observation from which its direction could be cal- 
culated ; but from numerous facts it is known that the cur- 
rent of the Icy Sea runs in the direction of W. and S. W., 
toward the coast of (îreenlaud.* 

This sudden change of the temperature indicates clearly 
the limits of the Avarm current. This limit, from the ob- 
servations cited, is found to be where the northwest part of 
Iceland ends. 

In this locality the current which comes from the Icy Sea 
arrests the warm current in its course toward the N. It 
is possible that it juay be thus turned, and that then it is 
directed toward the VV., along the southern limit of the 
current of the Icy Sea, until it is entirely wasted. 

From the temperature of the sea between Cape Farewell 
and Iceland, and the northerly direction of the current, of 
which mention has been made, it is probable that a current 
to the X. exists in the greater portion of the channel which 
separates Iceland and Greenland, excepting where the cur- 
rent of the Icy Sea is strongest, and opens for itself a route 
to the S., along the east coast of Greenland, t 

The warm current which runs toward the X., in round- 
ing Iceland on the west, makes the temperature on the west 

* Currents near Iceland, by Captain Irminger ; 2^^ew Archives of Xari- 
(jation, 1843, page 199. 

t Many experiments lia\'e been made by throwing bottles into the sea 
to find the direction of tlie current. Although the indications are quite 
nncertain, they may contribute to throw some light on this subject; but 
much would be added to their value if the bottles used were sufficiently 
thick and heavy to allow only a very small part of their surface to float 
above the level of the water. They would thus escape the influence of 
the wind and ouly follow the current. I will, however, cite some ex- 
anijjles of bottles which, though thrown into the sea in the localities 
south of Iceland, where the winds prevail from W., have followed a direc- 
tion approaching to north, from w^hich it can be concluded that the cur- 
rent was more W. than N., otherwise they would have been drifted to- 
ward the E. Kennel mentions the following, p. 338: A bottle frojn the 
Rekla, Captain Parry, tlirown in 56^ 36' N. latitude, and 25° 45' W. 
longitude, the 13th October, 1820, was found the 6th or 7th of March, 
1821, on the coast of Iceland, (Southern Barlwick.) Another bottle 
from the Eisw<j Sun, Captain Bennett, thrown in 50^^ 32' N., and 26° 40' 
W.; and a tliird by the fVrtxieof Leven, thrown in 56° N. and 16° 30' W.. 
•were both found on the coast of Iceland. 



198 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

coast of Icelaucl comparatively mild, aud uo ice is found in 
the Bay of Faxe. If this current did not exist, the ice 
which extends off Spitzbergen, and which is always forced 
to the southwest, along the coast of Greenland, would bring 
up on the coast of Iceland, particularly with the fresh winds 
from W., and would fill the bays and gulfs. 

Then its climate would probably not differ from that of the 
east coast of Greenland, which the cold renders almost un- 
inhabitable. The ice there is so heaped up that the coast 
is always inaccessible. There are on the sea-coast enor- 
mous barriers of ice, which often extend far into the offing. 
Very heavy weather from the west can alone break this 
barrier and remove it a little from the coast ; but as soon 
as the storm ceases the ice closes in again.* 

Carried by the current of the Icy Sea, the ice, especially 
in the spring, extends often more than twenty miles below 
Cape Farewell ; the current then doubles this promontory in 
running into Davis's Strait. It does not generally run to the 
N. above the Céth parallel of latitude. It runs toward the 
W. in the straits, and there it is united, without doubt, 
with the current which from Hudson's Bayt and the west 
part of Davis's Strait is directed to the south along the coast 
of Labrador. It contributes to drift the ice, which is thus 
taken toward the south from Davis's Strait to Newfound- 
land, and further into the Atlantic, where it is often an 
obstacle and a great danger to vessels navigating between 
Europe and North America. 

When cruising in different climates, where the tempera- 
ture of the sea and air is observed, one is struck with the 
concordance between the two temperatures, 

I have already mentioned that I have found, during the 
month of September, 1847, between the parallels of 15° and 
11° N. and the meridians of 19° and 21° W. the temperature 
of the sea varying from 82°.6 to 85°.2. In these localities 
the atmosphere is always heavy and disagreeable and the 
temperature 83° to 86° ; eight days after, in latitude 4° N. 
and between 5° and 10° W. longitude, the temperature of 
the sea was only 74°.8 and we had an agreeable tempera- 
ture not exceeding 75° ; that is 9°.5. cooler, although we 
were from 7° to 11° nearer the Equator. 

It is to the warm current of the south, of which we have 

* Voyage of Graali, page 154. tEeunel, page 24y. 



CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. IDO 

aln^uly s[)()koii, wliicii Hows iiloui;' the west coast ol' Iceland 
to which we must attribute the rehitively niikl temperature 
of lleikiavik, the mean of which is 30°, Avhile that of Goth- 
aal, situated nearly in the same latitude as Eeikiavik, is 
34°.8 Fahrenheit, and that of the east coast of Greenland, 
along which descends the arctic current, is almost uniidmb- 
itable from excessive cold, although situated some de- 
grees to the south of lîeikiaAik. 

A little to the south of the ISTewfoundland Banks, where 
the current from Davis's Strait meets the Gulf Stream,* it 
cannot but be remarked, in working to windward during 
the winter, that it is exceedingly cold on the boundary of 
the Gulf Stream, when in the middle of its bed the temper- 
ature is mild and the air liiuuid. 

Sir Philip Brok cites, among other facts, that in the years 
1811 and 1813, while navigating during the winter between 
the north and south limits of the Gulf Stream, in 39° or 
40° ^N". latitude, he found that the thermometer marked 
79°.l in the middle of the bed of the current.t 

Many similar examples could be cited, but by reference 
to the chart where the isothermal lines are traced, the influ- 
ence that the currents have on the climate can more readily 
be seen. 

The general currents, the cold as well as the warm, con- 
stantly fed by the arrival of masses of water of the same 
temperature, preserve their temperature (whether higher 
or lower than that of the sea which surrounds them) in 
traversing large tracts of the ocean, and thej'^ refresh or 
warm the atmosphere far from the regions of their origin. 

A remarkable iiroof of the circular path of these masses 
of water is the quantity of tropical productions which are 
frequently carried to shores far to the northward ; many 
species of mimosa are found on the coasts of Norway,| 
Faroe Islands, Iceland, and of Greenland, Avhere also wood 
is frequently found ; this wood thrown upon the shore is 

* After the Gulf Stream has run a distance of about two hundred miles 
to the N. E. from the Strait of Florida it still preserves a temperature 
of 7° to 10° higher thau the ordinary temperature of the ocean during- 
the summer, and its velocity is one mile per hour. (Kennel, page 152.) 

t Rennel, pages 181, 182. 

t Description of Currents by Sandmor in the district of Bergen, p. 138 ; it 
is there mentioned that sometimes cocoanuts are thrown on the coast. 



200 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

of tlie greatest utility to the inhabitants, deprived as they 
are of forest vegetation. 

Torn by inundations from the borders of rivers, these 
trees are carried by the stream to the ocean ; the lighter 
species, even after drifting a long time, continue to float, 
and this is the reason why the greater i)art of the wood 
thus collected is composed of dififerent species of the fir 
tribe. Generally it is only the trunks, with a portion of 
their roots, which are thus found, the branches having been 
taken away.* 

On the north coast of Beata, a small inhabited island sit- 
uated to the south of Santo Domingo, I saw, in 1849, a large 
quantitj' of floating wood, among it some trees of a species 
unknown in the West Indies. 

From the circular route of the currents it is probable that 
the specimen of wood that I found on the shore of this 
island arrived from the southern portion of the globe, and 
that whatever follows that route, if not arrested by some 
coast, is drawn into the current of the Gulf of Mexico, then, 
by the Gulf Stream, across the Strait of Florida, and lastly 
toward the north. t Thus, i)erhaps, at times, a tree, a native 
of New Zealand, or of some other jflace of the southern hemi- 
sphere, may be landed on the coast of Iceland, or other 
shores of the far north. 

In the Islands of Faroe it frequently happens that wood 
in considerable quantities is drifted near to Kirkehoe, situ- 
ated iu the southern j)art of the Island of Stromo. 

In 1844 I saw there a pine, the trunk of which, three feet 
above the roots, measured five feet four inches in circum- 
ference. The proprietor of the place informed me that wood 
drifted here often in February and March, and he calculated 
that the profit which he derived from it annually was as 
great as that derived from a field, which brought him $25 to 
$34. I learned, however, that this floating wood did not 
arrive latterly in such large quantities as in times past. 

* Description of the Currents iy Sandmor, Sfc. lu vol. vii, p. 419, among 
the dangers of Banca Strait, drift-wood is mentioned. I. K. Welsted, in 
his voyage, (Nach dcr Sladt der Kali fen,) p. 8, states that he encountered 
much drift-wood iu the Persian Gulf. In \\\e, Scientific Voyages of Darvin, 
p. 242, it is related that large quantities of drift-w^ood are thrown on 
the shores and channels of Tierra del Fuego. 

tThe ship Tilbury was hurned near Santo Domingo ; her mainmast was 
drifted to the west coast of Scotland. Eennel, p. 348, and Berghaus, 
vol. i, 1837, p. 562. 



("UK RENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 201 

Many tiocs arc tluowii on the coast of Iceland, juinci- 
pally on that of the north, and are hmded to tlie westward 
of Point Langanoes, near the phiin of JNIelrak, between the 
North C'ape and Adelvi^. 

I have often nnderstood from the inhabitants that a ])art 
of this wood was cedar, althongh it is possible that trees of 
this species may be drawn into the Gulf Stream and then 
follow the same ronte as the mimosas. It is not probable ; 
on the contrary, 1 am of opinion that a great part of the 
wood thrown upon the coast of Iceland is the larch, taken 
to the Icy Sea* by the rivers of SiV)eria. Being carried in 
this sea by the current running to the W., it reaches Ice- 
land,t Greenland, &c., passing Spitzbergen. As its coloris 
reddish, it is confounded with the cedar. Further, it is 
proved that the larch, after remaining some time in water, 
takes a reddish tint ; it is this color, in my opinion, which 
has caused the two to be confounded. In the Islands of 
Faroe I have never seen other than pines, and they informed 
me there that nearly all the wood cast upon their coast was 
white. This is an excellent proof that the red wood drifted 
upon the shores of Iceland is not the cedar, for if it were, 
trees of the same species would frequently be found on the 
shores of the Islands of Faroe. It is very j^robable that 
the greatest part of the floating wood which is thrown upon 
these coasts comes from the rivers of America, and that it 
is carried to the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi ; from 
there, by the Gulf Stream, and then by the current which 
exists between the Shetlands and Iceland, toward the Icy 
Sea. Drift-wood in rivers is an obstacle and serious danger 
for navigation. It is probable that the forests in the vicin- 

* The North of Siberia, by Wrangel. lu this work he states that' the 
hirch tree in Siberia is black ou the north side of the trunk, and red on 
the side turned to the south. There are large forests of these on the 
shores of the rivers; among others those of the Lena, p. 308. Among 
the great number of larches and aspens on the coast between the Lena 
and the Indiguirka it is seldom that pine and fir trees are met with. 

tl have seen in 1834, on the farm of Geitarkard, situated in the north 
part of Iceland, near the river Blauda, some window shutters made of 
the remains of a ship, the Margarithe, the name being painted on them . 
This ship had navigated between Gluckstadt and Greenland, and a few 
years before had been abandoned a short distance from Spitzbergen ; 
some time after, her hull was drifted on shore near the mouth of the 
Blanda. 



202 CUEEENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 

ity of the rivers of North America are considerably thinned, 
as much on account of the great quantity of wood consumed 
by the numerous steamers plying on these rivers as by the 
great clearings made by the colonies established on their 
borders. It would not appear to me strange that the annual 
diminution of the drift-wood, as remarked at the Islands of 
Earoe, might be a consequence of the destruction of forests 
formerly extending to the shores of the rivers mentioned, 
and it might be supposed that the number of trees thrown 
upon the coast of the islands, &c., of the Northern Ocean 
would in the future become less and less. 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



A. 

Pag-. 

Abrohlos Islets 88 

Accra trading station 189 

Azores Arobipelago 118, 119, 122, 124, 126, 128, 149, 150, 154, 155, 157, 

168, 169 

Adelvig Bay 201 

Africa, Laud and sea breezes near tbe coast of 15, 16 

, Solar breezes 1 6, 17 

, Coast 6, 9, 10, 149, 151, 156, 185 

, Sub-marine currents observed near the coast of 184, 185 

, Hariuattau 17 

, Route from Ascension to St. Helena, to ports on the south 

coast of 167,168 

, Tornadoes on the coast of 17, 18, 19 

, Winds on the west coast of 15-28 

Africa, Northern, polar current of 128, 129 

, Routes from Europe to 158-161 

, Routes from ports of North America to those of 170 

Africa, Southern, Routes from Europe to ports of 163-165 

, Routes from jjorts of North America to those of 170 

Aguja, Cape Ill 

Agulhas, Bank of — Current of Cape 131, 132 

Alta Vela Islet 70 

Amazon River 110, 113, 133 

America, Coast of 5, 6, 9 

, Winds in the arctic region of 34-38 

America, North, Coast of 15 

, Routes from Europe to 139, 140 

, Routes returning from the ports of coast of Africa, to 

those of 170, 171 

, Winds on the east coast of 46, 47 

America, South, Routes from Europe to the ports of 155, 156 

, Routes from the ports of North America, to those 

of 107 

Anegada Island 118 

Angola coast 119, 164 

, Winds on the coast of 22 

Anguilla Island 117, 118, 152 

Anno-Bon Island 107, 165 

, Winds at Islaud of 24 

Auticosti Island 40, 41, 126 

Antigua Island 69, 70, 116, 152 

Antigua Point 188 



204 INDEX. 

Page. 

Apalaclie' Bay, Winds iu 56 

Arcaclioa Basin 128 

Archangel, Tides of 139 

, Routes to 136-139 

Arctic Current 125 

frozen ocean 14, 191, 195, 197, 198, 201 

Arguin Bank 159 

Ascension Island 165-168 

• , Routes from Africa to 168 

, Routes by the east and west to , 165, 166 

, Winds at 25 

Atlantic Ocean, Traverse current of 132 

, Currents of 106-135 

— , Navigation in 136-171 

, Observations on the currents of 183-202 

, Winds, trade or general, in 2-10 

, Winds in the north frigid zone of 14, 15 

, Winds in the south frigid zone of 11, 12, 13 

, Winds in the north temperate zone of 15 

, Winds in the south temperate zone of 13 

, Winds in the torrid zone of 2-11 

, Winds in , 1-105 

Atlantic, North, Comparative table of the mean velocity of the 

currents of the. Ocean 129 

Atlantic, South, Polar currents of the, Ocean 132, 133 

, Comparative table of the mean velocity of the currents of, 

. Ocean 134 

Australia, Continent 131 , 167 

Azores Islands 126 

B. 

Baffin's Bay 124,125 

, Currents in 125 

Bahama, Great Bank of 152 

Islands 69,70 

, New Channel of, or Florida Channel .48,50,106,118,119,120, 

124, 145, 152, 153, 154, 199, 200 

, Winds in the New Channel 55 

, Winds in the Islands of 79, 80, 81 

, Old channel of 152,153,155 

Bahia City 88,158 

Balta Point 136 

Baltimore, Port 150 

Barbadoes Island 69, 70, 111, 115, 118, 155 

Barbuda 116 

Barometer, Variations of 101, l02, 103 

Barrow Strait 124 

Bayamos squall 78 

Bayonne, Port 128 

Béate Island 200 

Behring Strait 124, 125 



1NDK}«. -!05 

Bello-Tylo, Curreuta iu the Strait of 125 

, Strait 144 

lîemini Islands Ill) 

Jîeiigal, llunicanos of the Gulf of 174 

liongiu-la coast 19, 22, 164 

, Wiiuls on the coast of 122 

Benin, Gulf of 121) 

, Winds - 24 

Bermudas, Islands of 46, 48, 69, 121 , 12:^, 154, 155, 171 

, Routes to the Islands of - 141, 148 

, Winds at the Islands of 48, 49 

Biafra, Gulf of 133,159,160,161,166 

, Winds in the Gulf of. 18, 23, 24 

Bic Island 40 

Biscay, Ciureut of Bay of 126, 127 

, Bay of 127, 158 

, Shifts of wind iu Bay of 33 

, Winds in Bay of 32, 33 

Bissagos Archipelago 19, 162, 165 

, Winds on the coast and in the Archipelago of 27 

Blanda River 201 

Block Island 121 

Blue-nose, see Cat-nose Cape. 

Bojador, Cape 128 

Bordeaux, Port 157 

Boston line of steam packets 151 

Bourbon, Hurricanes of 174 

Boweu, Port 38 

Brazil coast 5, 106, 107, 108, 131, 156, 157, 162, 166, 167 

, Currents of 130 

, Currents, alternative, coast of 130 

, Winds on east coast of 87, 88, 89 

, Winds on north coast of 86, 87 

Bremen City 150 

Brest, Port 127, 154, 155, 157, 158, 163 

Breton Island 47, 143 

Bristol, Port 150, 151 

Brittany coast 32 

British Islands 136 

, Winds in the, Islands 33 

Brunswick, see New Jirunswick. 

Buenos Ayres, Line of packets from Falmouth to 158 

, Road of 89, 91 , 155, 156, 158 

C. 

Caiman Island 69 

Caicos Islands 152 

Campêche Baj' 55, 69 

Bank 55, 111 

Canada, Winds of 39 

Canaries Islands 30, 128, 149, 151, 155, 158, 159, 163, 164 



206 . INDEX. 

Page. 

Canaries Islaucls, Routes from Europe to the 158 

, Winds in the Archipelago of 28, 29 

Cantin, Cape 127, 128 

Cape Town, City 164 

, Winds at 20 

Caracas, Winds on the coast of 84 

Carnaveral, Cape 120 

Carolina Coast 70, 120, 121, 122 

Caribbean Sea 108, 111, 112, 113, 123, 151, 152, 154 

, Currents in 111-119 

, Navigation in 151, 152, 154 

, Hurricanes in 68, 69, 70, 71 

, Winds in 68-82 

Carrysfort Cays, see Florida Cays. 

, Winds on the coast of. 

Carthagena, Port 84, 112, 152 

, Winds at 84 

Cat-nose, Cape 138 

.Tides at 139 

Catoche, Cape Ill 

, Winds on the coast comprised between Point Piedras and 

the Cape of 68 

Castle Harbor 147 

Cayenne Road 157 

Channel, British 127,140,158,164 

,Windsin 33 

Charleston, Port 150 

Cherbourg, Port 158 

China Sea, Typhoons in 173, 174 

Chocolateros winds 51 

Christiansburg Anchorage 187 

Cimbebasia, Winds on coast of. 21 

Clear, Cape 127 

Coast-castle, Cape 161 

Congo coast 16 

River 19, 23, 133 

, Winds on the coast of 23 

Copenhagen City 184, 186 

Cornwall, Winds on the coast of 33 

Currents, Classification of 106, 107 

Crooked Island Passage 152, 153 

Cross Island : 138 

; Tides at 139 

Cuba 68, 111, 119, 153, 154 

, Winds at 78, 79 

Cumaua, Winds on the coast of 84 

D. 

Daughters Islands 137 

Davis, Currents in Strait of .• 124, 126 

Strait 140, 185, 194, 195, 198, 199 



INDKX. 207 

Page. 
Delawaiv Ivivi-r 148 

Denu'iaia Ki \ t-i- I55 

, Winds at ^5 

Dt'iiuiaik, Coast of 124 

IX'siiade Island HO 

Douiinii-a Island 70, llf,, IIG, 118 

, Winds at 82, 83 

Drift currents 1 ] 

] )ry season 10,11 

E. 

Elbe River I54, I55 

England, Coast of 13G, 140, 157 

, Length of passages of steamers from United States to 151 

, Winds coast of 33 

Eqnator, Epoch favorable to cross 5 

Etinatorial, Xorthwest branch of, current 109 

Counter-current 109, 190 

Current 107, 108, 109, 129, 160, 189, 190 

, Disturbances in the 109, 190 

Espiritu Sauto Bay 88 

East wind 29 

Été de Mars season • 85 

Europe, Routes from Cnl)a and ports of the Gulf of Mexico to.. 154 

, Route fi'om La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Cumaua, &c., to. .. 154 

, Routes from Xorth Africa to 1G8, 169 

, Route from United States to 150, 151 

, Route from i)orts of South America to 156, 157, 158 

, Routes from West Indies to 153, 154 

, Route from the Virgin Islands, or Porto Rico, to 154 

, Route from Santa Marta, Carthageua, &c., to 154 

, Route from Cape of Good Hope to 169, 170 

, Route, along the coast of Africa, from Cape of Good Hope 

to 169,170 

F. 

Eairhill Island 192, 193 

Falkland Islands 131, 156 

, Winds at 94, 95 

False Bay 20 

Famine Port 100, 101, 102 

Farewell, Cape ! 125, 193, 197, 198 

Faxe Bay 198 

Fernando de Noronha Island 157 

Fernando Po Island 161 

, Winds on coast of 24 

Fe'roe Islands 124, 136, 193, 199, 200, 201, 202 

Finistère, Cape 30, 126, 127, 158 

Florida Channel, see Bahama New Channel. 

Cape 119 

, Cays of 55,120 



208 INDEX. 

Page. 

Florida, Coast of 118, 120 

, Currents near Avest coast of 112 

, Peuinsula of Ill 

, Winds on west coast of 55, 56, 57 

Fort Morgan, Winds at 57-65 

Fortune Bay 143 

France, Coast of 128, 136, 140, 157 

Frederickton City 46 

Fro ward, Cape lOO 

Funchal, Eoad 29, 155 

G. 

Gaboon, Coast 17, 18, 133 

Elver 17, 160, 161 

Galveston Bay 112 

, Winds at 57-65 

Gambia River 159, 162, 163, 169 

Gaspé, Cape 40 

Geitaskard, Farm 201 

Georges Bank 121 

Georgia coast 49, 120, 122 

Gibbs Hill light 144, 146, 147, 148 

Gibraltar, Current of Strait of 127 

Strait 127, 128, 130, 155, 157, 163 

Gliickstadt, Port 201 

Goazacoalcos Eiver 112 

Gold Coast 160 

, Winds on 24 

Gomera Island 159 

Gonaïves Bay 82 

Good Hope, Cape 4, 5, 13, 132, 133, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170 

counter-current 132, 133 

, Current of Cape of, see Agulhas, Current of Cape. 

, Doubling the Cape of, going east 20 

, Doubling the Cape of, going west 20 

, Winds in vicinity of Cape of 20, 21 

Gorèe Island 19, 159, 162, 163, 169 

Gothaal Eoad . I 199 

Gracias à Dios Cape 112 

Grand Canary Island 29, 159 

Grand Bank, Currents on 143 

, Eoute from Europe for 140, 141, 142 

Grand Bassam triîding station 161 

Great Antilles land breezes 68 

Green Bank 142 

Island 40 

Grenada Island 70, 111, 114 , 152, 155 

Grenadines Islands 114 

Greenland, Coast of 125, 191, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201 

, Winds of 34 

Guadeloupe Island 116, 152, 153, 155, 188, 189, 190 



INDEX. îfOlï^ 

Page. 

Guinea, Coast 1«, 17, 21, 18^, I8(i, 187, 188, 180, 190 

, Gulf of 9, 107, 120, 1:53, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166 

, Navigation in the tînlf of 150, 163 

, Routes from East to West in the Gulf of 161, 162 

, Routes to trading stations on coast of 150, 160 

Guinea, Favorable season to leave the Gulf of 162, 163 

, Tornadoes in Gulf of 19 

Guinea, North Current of 107, 108, 128, 120, 160, 161, 189 

, South Current of 133, 134, 160 161 

Gulf Stream, Northeast branch of 124 

, Counter-currents of 48, 110, 120 

Current 45, 48, 40, 106, 107, 118, 124, Ï26, 120, 140, 145, 148, 

140, 150, 185, 104, 105, 100, 200, 201 

Gurnet, Cape 147 

Guiana, Coast 4,110 

, Current of 108, 110, 111, 112, 191 

, Routes from Europe to 153 

, Winds on the coast of 85 

H. 
Haiti Island, nee San Domingo. 

Halifax, Regular line of packets 151 

Halt Bay 105 

Hamburg, Port 154,155 

Harmattan, Wind 17, 24, 25, 26 

Hatteras, Cape 40, 118, 110, 120, 121, 145 

Havana, Regular line of steam packets 155 

, Port 78, 152, 153, l.^>4, 155 

Havre, Regular line of steamers from Rio Janeiro to 158 

, Port 154, 155, 157, 158 

Hierro Islands 159 

Holland, Winds 33 

Honduras, Gulf Ill, 112 

, AVinds on coast of 83 

Horn, Cape 13, 131, 156, 1.57, 1.58 

, Currents of Cape 131 

, Winds at Cape 02, 03, 04 

Hottentotia, Winds on the coast of 21 

Hudson Bay 124, 125, 140, 144, 198 

, Currents in 125, 126 

, Winds in 39' 

Huesos Colorados, Winds 51 

Hurricanes, Currents of '. ,76 

, Epoch of 71 

, Localities of 71 

, General laws which govern 70-77 

, Undulations of 76 

, Nautical directions to escape from 173, 182 

14 A O 



^10 INDEX. 

I. 

Page. 

Iceland, Current between the Shetlands and 191, 192, 193,194 

, Island 124, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201 

Icy Cape 124 

India, Country 170 

, Sea of 169 

, Hurricanes of 173 

Indigviirka Eiv'er 201 

Ireland, Island <,....'.. 126 

, Sea of 127 

, Winds on the coast of 33 

Island Harbor 105 

Ivory coast 160 

, Winds on 24 

J. 

Jacuiel, Port 155 

Jamaica Island 68, 69, 70, 112, 153 

, Winds at 81 

Jan Mayen Island 195 

K. 

Kamtschatka, Province 124 

Key West, Winds at 57, 65 

Kildnin, Tides at : ' 139 

Kinienskoi, Point 139 

Kingston, Port 152, 155 

Kio Island 139 

KirkehoeCity 200 

Kisniinskoi Point, see Kenienskoi. 

Knock John Bank 138 



Labrador coast ■ 198 

LaGuayia 152, 154, 155 

Lancaster Strait, see Barrow Strait. 

Langanœs Point 201 

Lapland coast 138 

, Tides on the coast of 139 

Laxa Bay 137 

Lena River . 201 

Liberia, Coast 159 

, Winds on coast of 25 

Line, Where to cross the 155, 156 

, Favorable times for crossing the 6 

Liverpool, Port 15, 149, 150, 151 

Loango, Coa-st 16, 164 

, Winds on the coast of 23 

London City 167 

Lopez, Cape 16, 165 

, Winds near the 23 

Lorient, Port 155 

Los Islands 26 



INDEX. 211 

M. 

Piipre. 

:\Ia(lii>rasc;ir Island . W, VA2 

Madeira Islaii.l 4, 17, 128, 149, 155, 158, 163, 164, 184 

. Winds at 29 

Magellan Strait .' l»l 

, Winds, Ac, at 99, 105 

Maraiiliani, Poit 157, 158 

, City 86, 87 

, Winds at S6, 87 

Marie Galante Island 116 

Marocco, Coast 16 

, "Winds on loast of 30 

MarseilU's, Port 157 

Martinicino Island 5, 69, HI, 115, 118, 154, 155 

Matagorda, Winds on the coast, comprised between the Missis- 
sippi and 66 

Matanzas, Port 119 

Mauritius Island 71 

Mayo Island 128 

Meccatina Elver 126 

Mediterranean Sea 18, 127, 180 

MelrakPlain 201 

Meshen, Gulf of 138 

Mesurado, Cape 128 

Mexico, Coast of 185 

, Gulf of 55,71.106,112,151,152,200,201 

, Gales from N. in Gulf of 50, 51 

, Currents in Gulf of 111,1 12 

, Routes from Europe to the Gulf of 151, 152 

, Seasons in the Gulf of 51, 52, 53, 54,55 

, Winds iu the Gulf of 50-68 

, Winds on the coast of 66-68 

Mezene, Cape, see Meshen Cape. 

Miquelon Island 125, 144 

Mississippi River 56, 1 12, 201 

, Winds on the coast comprised between the Bay of 

Appalachee and 56 

Mona Passage • 152, 154 

Monserrat Island 116, 153 

Mont', Point de 40 

Montevideo, Port 15^, 158 

Mosquito coast 1 1 •* 

, Winds on '^•^ 

Mother Island 137 

Mozambique Channel l-'l 

, Hurricanes in 1^4 

Murrav Anchorage 1"*' 



N. 



Najrel Island. 



Nant 



137 



ucketBank 118,121,148 



212 INDEX. 

Page. 

Nassau/Port .' 79 

Negro, Cape 16, 164 

New Brunswick coast 140 

, Winds of , 146 

New Foundland Bank / 118, 125, 140, 141, 142, 143, 199 

, Fogs on bank of 141,142,143,144 

, Currents in vicinity of - 125, 144 

, Currents on Grand Bank of, see Grand Bank. 

, Ice on the Bank of 141, 142 

Island 47, 125, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 198 

, Eoute from Europe to 140, 141 

, Route to Grand Bank from, see Grand Bank, route to 

, Winds at Island of 39,40 

New Orleans, Port 152 

New Providence, Winds at 79, 80 

New York, Eegular line of steamers from Havre to 151 

, Port 15,149,150,151,171 

, Passages from Liverpool to 150 

New Zealand Islands 200 

Nicaragua, Port of San Juan de 112 

Nieves Island 116 

Nordkyn, Cape 137 

North Cajye, Iceland 201 

Cape, Lapland 136,137 

Sea 124 

Northers, Winds 50,51 

North KynCape 137 

Norway coast 124, 195,199 

, Winds on coast of 34 

l^ova Scotia coast 121, 140, 171 

, Winds at 45,46 

Nova Zembla, Winds at .,. 15 

O. 

Olinda, Point 156 

Onega, Cape 138, 139 

, Tides at 139 

River : 139 

, Route to 136-139 

Orinoco River Ill 

Orlogenose, Cape, see Orlow Cape. 

Orlotsna Volock Point 139 

Oiiow, Cape 138 

, Tides at 139 

Ouessant Island 127 



Palma Island 159 

Palmas, Cape 10, 19, 21, 107, 108, 128, 129, 160, 162, 165, 166 



INDEX. 21.'? 

Page. 

l'aimas Road '. 34, 159 

, Winds at Cape 25 

, Genoral winds on the west coast of Africa, between the 

Capo of Good Hope and '20, 25 

Pamperos, Gales of wind [H) 

Para, Squalls of 8() 

, Winds at Sit 

,City 8() 

Paraguay, Winds on the coast of HI) 

Patagonia coast 101, 15») 

, Winds on east coast of 1)1 , 92 

Patrix Bay , 190 

Penedo de San Pedro Eocks 170 

Pensacola, Winds at SO 

Pernambuco, Regular line of steam packets from Havre to 158 

, City 88 

Petite Terre Island 11(3 

Piedras, Winds on coast comprised between Vera Cruz and the 

Point of G7, 68 

Pine, Cape 144 

Pines, Island of Ill 

Plata, River 130 

, Winds at 89, 90, 91 

Polar winds 2 

Pouakla Island, see Purr-Luda. 

Pouoi River 138 

Porsanger Bay 137 

Port au Prince, Port 152, 155 

Port Natal Bay 132 

Porto Bello, Winds at 84 

Porto Cabello Port 152 

Porto Rico, Winds at 82 

Island 69,123,152 

Porto Seguro Bay 88 

Portsmouth, Port 151 

Portugal, Coast 18. 129, 136, 158 

Current on coast of 127 

, Winds on coast of 30, 31, 32 

Possession Bay 99 

Pousinière season 85 

Princes Island 133, 161, 162, 163 

, Winds at 24 

Providence Channel 152 

Providence, Winds at, see New Providence. 

Purr-Luda Island 139 

Puzlackta Anchprage 139 

Q. 
Quita Fort 189 



214 INDEX. 

R. 

Page, 

Race, Cape 125, 142, 144 

Rebojos, Winds 88 

Recife, Cape 132 

Reikianoes, Cape 192, 196 

Reikiavik Road 196, 199 

Rennel Current'. 126, 127, 129 

Réunion Islands 71 

Rio Congo River, see Congo River. 

Rio Janeiro, Port. . ^. 155, 156, 157, 158 

, Winds at 89 

Rochefort, Port , 155 

Rodriguez Island 71 

Rovestra Island 139 

S. ' • 

Saba Island 116, 117 

Sable, Cape , 140 

Island 45, 140, 148 

, Winds at Island of 45 

St. Antonio, Cape 1 1 1 , 154 

St. Augustine, Cape, Brazil .• 157 

, Winds in vicinity of, Florida 47, 48 

St. Barthélémy Island 117 

St. Christophe Island 116 

St. David's Head 147, 148 

Santo Domingo, Channels of - 153, 154 

Island 68, 69, 70, 153, 154, 200 

, Winds at 81, 82 

St. Eustache Island 116, 117 

St. George's Bank 148 

Port and Road 147 

Sah Juan de Nicaragua Port, see Nicaragua, Port of San Juan. 

St. Lawrence, Gulf 48, 125, 126, 142, 143, 144 

, Route from Europe to the Gulf of 43 

, Winds in the Gulf and River of 40, 45 

St. Louis City, Senegal 19,159,162,169 

St. Mark's Channel . , 82 

San Martin Island 70, 117, 152 

Mountains 50 

St. Nicolas Point 138 

St. Pierre, Peter's Bank 142 

Island 125,142,143,144 

, Route from Europe to 142 

St. Thomas Island, West Indies 70, 152, 155 

, Coast of Africa 24,129 

St. Vincent Cape 30,127,128 

Island 70, 111, 115, 152 

St. Anna Cape 25,26 

St. Catherine Island 88, 91, 157 

St. Croix Island 117 

St. Helena Island 5, 166, 167, 168, 169 



INDEX. 215 

l'.ig.,. 

St. Helona, Routos from Africa to KiH 

, Kouto oast and west to 1 GC), 1()7 

, W i nds a t 25 

Sta. Lucia Island 70, HI, 115, 118, 152 

Saintes Islands 1 1 •> 

Sal Island 128 

Salt Cay Bank 15^ 

San Marcos liay 87 

San Nicolas Island 128 

St. Paul de Loando Bay 13;i 

St. Phillip de Benguela City 167, 168 

Sau Roque Cape 86, 108, 130, 156 

St. Thomas Island, Africa 12i) 

, Winds at 24 

Santa Cruz City 158 

Sta. Marta City 69 

Sandy Point 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 

Santiago Island 128 

Sargasso Sea 123 

Scilly Isles 127 

Scotland, Coast 126, 140 

, Winds on coast of 33 

Senegal coast 17, 28, 170 

, Winds on the coast of 28 

Seuegambia coast 16, 17, 165, 169 

, Winds on the coast of 27, 28 

Seven Islands ., 137 

Shakloui Islets 139 

Shetland Islands 136, 191, 193, 194, 195, 201 

SchoU Bay 105 

Siberia coast 201 

Sierra Leone River 19, 159, 162 

, Winds in river of 26, 27 

J Winds on coast of 25, 26 

Silver Cay 152 

Slave coast or Benin coast 160 

Sombrero Island 117 

Sosnova Island, see Cross Island. 

Spain, Coast of 127, 136 

Spitzbergen coast 195, 198, 201 

, Winds at 14 

Squalls, Remarks on 95, 96, 97 

Stateu Island 131, 156 

Stromo Island 200 

Sweet-nose Bay or Swi.jatoi Noss Bay 137, 138 

T. 

Tobago Island 70, 111, 1 14, 152 

Table Bay, Winds in 20 

Tampico, Line of steamers from Southampton to 155 

Ri ver 152 



216 INDEX. 



Tampico, Winds on coast between Matagorda and 66 

Tana, Tides in Bay of 139 

Teneriffe Island 159,167 

Thorshaven, Observations in Bay of 193, 194 

Tide, Tide winds of tlie north 67 

Tieria del Fuego Island ' 156 

, Currents near coast of - 131- 

, Winds at 92, 101 

Three Islands 138 

Three Points Cape 129^ 

Todos los Santos, Winds in Bay of 89^ 

Tonga Islands 71 

Tornadoes, Squalls 11, 17, 18, 19 

Torrid Zone, Band of variable winds in 6, 7 

, Seasons in 10,11 

, Winds of 2-10 

, Variable winds of 6-10 

Tortugas, Cays Ill 

Trade-winds, Limits of 3-5 

, Disturbances in 5 

, or general winds 3-1& 

Trinidad Island, Coast of Venezuela 70, 82, 110, 111, 114, J 18, 155 

, Coast of Brazil 5,156,157,164 

Tropical winds 2 

Turks Island '. 152 

U. • 

United States coast 46, 49, 106, 140, 145, 152, 162 

, Length of voyage of steamers from England 150, 151 

, Route from Europe to 148, 149, 150 

, Winds in Gulf of Mexico on south coast of 55-66 

Ushant 127 

V. 
Vela, Winds on coast comprised between San Juan de Nicaragua 

and Cape 83, 84 

Vendavales, W^inds 66, 84 

Venezuela, Coast , 152 

Vera Cruz, Port 50, 63, 152, 154, 155 

, Winds at 66, 67 

, Wiuds on coast between Tampico and 66 

Vera Paz, Winds on east coast of 83' 

Verde, Cape 4,5,10,128,159,164,165 

, Islands of Cape . 129, 153, 162, 163, 164, 165, 170 

, Winds at islands of Caj)e 28 

Vientos de Cabeza, Winds 66 

Virgin Islands 117, 123, 152, 154 

Virgin Rocks _ 143' 

Virgins, Cape 101 



INDEX. 217 

w. 

Page. 

Wardlmiis, Tidrs at 13'J 

Wosoi- Kivor 150 

Western Islands 126 

West India Islands 52, 69, 70, 71, 145, 162, 183, 186, 190, 200 

, Calms and sipialls neai' the 77 

, Countei-cnrreuts of cnirent of Sea of 112 

, Current, submarine, observed near the 188 

, Hurricanes in 68, 69, 70, 71, 173 

, Kaces near 77 

, Route from Europe to 151 , 152 

, Route from United States or Bermudas to 152, 153 

, Seasons in 68, 69 

White Sea, Navigation of 137, 140 

, Tides in 139 

Winds, Remarks on gusts of 95, 97 

, Origin of 1,2 

Windward Islands 4, 170 

, Land breezes near 68, 69 

, Route from Jamaica to 154 

, Currents between 113-118 

Passage 153, 154 

Winter Hills Cape, see Cat-Nose Cape.' 

Winter season 10, 11 

Wreck-Hill, Hill ' 146 

Y. 

Yucatan, Coast of Ill 

, Winds on east coast of 83 

, Winds on north coast of (yS 

15 A O 



